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Discovery Tour: Ancient Egypt is an educational mode for Assassin's Creed: Origins.
The mode was released as a downloadable add-on on 20 February 2018 and is available for free to those who own the base game, or for purchase as a stand-alone version on PC. In it, players are to free roam the game's map of ancient Egypt and learn about the kingdom's history through a series of guided tours.[1]
Learn about the founding of the Ptolemaic Dynasty.
Pharaohs were considered divine incarnations of the gods. As an avatar of the gods living on earth, the pharaoh's role was to preserve fundamental values and universal harmony by removing chaos, isfet, and ensure that justice, maat, prevailed.
The pharaoh, by divine ancestry and through multiple offerings, was the bond that unites the world of men to the world of the gods and allows the maintenance of the cosmic order.
The Ptolemaic dynasty reigned over Egypt from 305 BCE to 30 BCE.
The dynasty was called the Ptolemies of the Lagides in recognition of the founder of the Dynasty, Ptolemy Lagos, a Greek general and close friend of Alexander the Great.
While Macedonian, Ptolemy Lagos understood that to be accepted by the Egyptian people, he would have to adopt their traditions. Upon assuming the title of pharaoh he changed his name to Ptolemy I Soter, meaning "savior."
Born in 356 BCE, Alexander the Great went through a hasty education in the affairs of the kingdom before integrating into the Macedonian army, where he quickly rose through the ranks.
After his father's assassination in 336 BCE, which some believed was orchestrated by Alexander himself, he became king of Macedonia.
Ruler of a unified kingdom and leader of a large army, Alexander set his sights on conquest. Eager to reclaim Greek cities of Asia Minor, he took on the Persian forces, earning victory after victory.
Ever victorious, Alexander the Great marched on, laying siege to city after city, until he reached Egypt, where the Persians were defeated yet again.
Viewed as a liberator by the Egyptian people, Alexander decided to become pharaoh in blue form. He traveled to Thebes to make a sacrifice to Apis, then went to the oasis of Siwa, where he was proclaimed son of Ammon.
Officialy pharaoh of Egypt, Alexander spent much of the winter there, and founded the city of Alexandria.
Perhaps not coincidentally, being pharaoh allowed Alexander to spread propaganda to prepare further conquests. He resumed his military campaigns in 331 BCE.
On his deathbed in 323 BCE, Alexander the Great gifted the satrapy of Egypt to Ptolemy Lagos.
Perfectly aware of the value of Egypt, Ptolemy ensured not only the stability of the country's borders, but also its economic and military development. At the same time, he worked with the Egyptian elite to maintain the interal order of the country.
By 305 BCE, Ptolemy, well respected both in Egypt and in the Mediterranean, was at the head of the largest fleet of the Hellenistic world.
Ptolemy officially took the title of pharaoh of Egypt in January 304 BCE, on the anniversary of Alexander the Great's death.
Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE. His remains were placed first in a solid gold sarcophagus, and then within another.
The casket was carried in a an ornate custom wagon, glided and set with precious stones and pulled by sixty-four mules crowned in gold. The funeral procession was diverted to a grandiose temple in Alexandria built in the conqueror's honor, under the orders of Ptolemy I.
Julius Caesar visited Alexander's tomb at the capture of Alexandria, and the Roman Emperor Augustus reported placed flowers there.
However, though many powerful leaders claimed to have visited it, the tomb's location has gone missing from history.
Some accounts do state that the golden coffin was replaced by a glass sarcophagus, probably by Ptolemy X. It is also implied that Cleopatra may have plundered the tomb in a time of financial crisis.
Learn about Cleopatra, the last of the ancient Egyptian pharaohs.
Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator ascended the throne in 51 BCE, at the age of eighteen. Though her early attempts to maintain power were often challenged, she eventually prevailed, and became the sole ruler of Egypt.
According to Plutarch, she was the only Ptolemaic pharaoh to speak the Egyptian language. Her intelligence, coupled with a good education and a great political mind, allowed her to make the alliances necessary to maintain the independence of Egypt while Rome was becoming a Mediterranean empire.
It is important to understand that Cleopatra's knowledge of Egyptian language and keen understanding of Egyptian language and keen understanding of the culture allowed her to make powerful ideological referents that resonated with ancient Egyptians.
By associating herself with the goddess Iset, the divine mother, great of magic and repository of divine essence, Cleopatra firmly established herself as the Protector of the Two Lands, and legitimized her place on the throne.
Upon his death in 51 BCE, Ptolemy XII Aulos bequeathed his kingdom to his daughter and eldest son: Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII.
As was custom, the siblings were married. The new pharaoh was 10 years old, his sister-wife 17.
The early years of their reign were not easy. Between 50 and 48 BCE, droughts and floods aggravated Egypt's problems. General Achillas and the royal advisor Potheinos kept intervening in the young rulers' political decisions, and eventually colluded to turn Ptolemy XIII against Cleopatra.
By 48 BCE, Cleopatra was in exile.
During Cleopatra's exile, the Roman empire was not without its own internal conflict. Caesar and Pompey were at war with one another, and after his defeat in 48 BCE, Pompey fled to Alexandria in the hope of finding refuge.
This turned out to be an unwise decision. Listening to his advisors, Ptolemy XIII elected to have Pompey assassinated, his head kept as a gift in the hopes of acquiring Caesar's favor.
This gambit backfired. Instead of earning approval, the murder of a Roman greatly angered Caesar.
Cleopatra, aware of Caesar's anger against Ptolemy for the murder of Pompey, decided to take advantage of the situation.
She returned to Egypt in secret, hoping to establish an alliance with one of the most powerful men of the time.
Outside of the legend where she had herself smuggled into his quarters in a carpet, what exactly happened during that fateful meeting remains a mystery. However, Caesar seemed to see a better ruler for Egypt in Cleopatra than in her young and too-easily influenced brother.
Invoking Ptolemy XII's will, Caesar attempted to mediate peace between the siblings.
Ptolemy XIII was enraged by the turn of events, and his advisors were none too happy to see Cleopatra return. Urged on by General Achillas and Potheinos, the young Pharaoh plotted against Caesar and Cleopatra, resulting in the siege of Alexandria in 47 BCE.
It was in March 47 BCE that Caesar defeated Ptolemy XIII's forces. The young pharaoh drowned in the Nile after having fled the battlefield.
With her opponents dead or powerless, Cleopatra married her other much younger brother, Ptolemy XIV, and finally claimed the throne of Egypt for good.
In June of 47 BCE, Cleopatra gave birth to a son, whom she called Caesarion. Caesar did not accept the boy as his heir, choosing instead his nephew, Octavian.
Nonetheless, on his return to Rome, Caesar invited the queen and her brother-husband to stay in the city. Her presence still drew much disapproval from the senate.
Always a strategist, Caesar left four legions in Egypt, and a man he trusted to direct Egyptian affairs, giving him control of the wheat supplies essential to Rome.
Cleopatra and her entourage remained in Rome until March 44 BCE, when Caesar was murdered.
Caesar's most faithful ally, Mark Antony, often visited the queen of Egypt during his stay in Rome. Unlike most, he recognized the legitimacy of Caesarion, the natural son of Caesar.
Antony knew he would need the riches of Egypt, in order to fight OCtavian and claim the Roman Empire.
Cleopatra, in return, saw a powerful ally. In the winter of 41 BCE, she arranged a sumptuous tour of Egypt by boat, to show Antony the wealth of her country and the power she held as its ruler.
A romantic and political relationship followed. The Roman senate was once again most displeased. To calm spirits in Rome, Antony married Octavia, sister of Octavian.
Despite his marriage to Octavia, Antony remained Cleopatra's lover, and she gave birth to their children.
Cleopatra increased her kingdom's territory, and started a political propaganda alongside her lover, in Egypt and beyond. She hoped to create a Ptolemaic federal empire, with Alexandria at its center.
Antony eventually repudiated his Roman wife for the Egyptian queen, much to the dismay of the Roman elite.
However, while Mark Antony focused on Egypt, Octavian carefully gained military and political ascendency over him in Rome.
Octavian managed his own propaganda campaign, and succeeded. The Roman people hated Mark Antony and Cleopatra. To avoid the censure still inherent in attacking a fellow Roman, Octavian simply declared war against Egypt.
Rome's power still reigned supreme. The powerful Egyptian fleet, led by Cleopatra as well as Mark Antony's forces, were defeated in 31 BCE in Actium.
Octavian arrived in Egypt in 30 BCE, to formalize his victory.
The following events remain difficult to confirm, due to the many versions and legends around them.
It is believed that after hearing a rumur about Cleopatra's suicide, Mark Antony commited suicide himself. He was brought to the queen, as he slowly passed away.
Knowing that Octavian would have her chained and paraded through Rome in defeat, Cleopatra planned her own suicide.
She most likely killed herself with arsenic, though admittedly the version where she uses an asp to deliver a fatal bite may be considered more dramatic.
What happened to the body of Cleopatra is still a mystery...
Learn about the siege of Alexandria, from Julius Caesar's perspective.
Among the collection of writings attributed to Julius Caesar are his descriptions of the siege of Alexandria, the "Gallic Wars" and the "Commentaries on the Civil War".
These archives contain information on different campaigns: the Wars of Alexandria, Africa and Spain. Each of them recount Caesar's military activity from 58 BCE to 45 BCE.
Though Caesar's documents remain a main source of information, it's important to note that the perspective is limited. It is necessary for other historical documents to be taken into consideration to provide a better understanding of events.
The siege of Alexandria closely relays the events of the Civil War that lead up to the event, and describes how Caesar was besieged in the palace of the Ptolemies.
other ancient authors have left equally valuable, and sometimes contradictory, information.
In the events leading up to the siege of Alexandria, Cleopatra VII and her brother were fighting over control of Egypt. Young king Ptolemy XIII's regent, Potheinos had firm control over the young pharaoh, and an oumaneuvered Cleopatra soon went into hiding.
This set the stage for Pompey's arrival in Alexandria. Having lost his battle against Caesar in 48 BCE, the Roman general turned to his allies the Egyptians for safe harbor.
But, on the advice of Potheinos, Ptolemy XIII had Pompey assassinated in the hopes of earning Caesar's favor.
Upon his arrival in Alexandria, Caesar was presented with Pompey's head. The sight of a Roman murdered by Egyptians did not sit well with him.
Caesar made his displeasure clear, ordering the return of Cleopatra, and for the siblings to resolve their differences and resume their co-rule of Egypt, as per the will of their father.
Neither Potheinos nor Potlemy XIII wished to accede to this demand. While doing his best to ggravate Caesar, Potheinos secretly plotted against the Roman ruler, and sent word for Egyptian general Achillas to bring his 20 000 men to fight on his behalf.
While Potheinos plotted against Caesar, Cleoptra made a bold move.
There are various descriptions of the encounter between Caesar and Cleopatra.
One report states that she snuck into the palace alone at night. Another account claims she was accompanied by an ally, and was brought inside the palace wrapped in a carpet bag.
Though exactly what happened at this fateful meeting is up for debate, what is known is that Cleopatra met with Caesar, and earned his approval.
Potheinos and Ptolemy XIII were most vexed with this turn of events.
With Cleopatra finally present, Caesar chose to act as mediator between the silblings, in the hopes of a peaceful resolution.
It did not take long for things to sour. During a banquet given to celebrate the reconciliation, there was an assassination attempt on Caesar. It was the Roman leader's own barber who thwarted the attack.
Once it was revealed that the king's regent, Potheinos, had ordered the attack, Caesar had him executed. He then placed the young king under guard.
Caught within the palace with roughly 4000 troops and with the knowledge that the arrival of enemy forces was imminent, Caesar sent for help from Syria, Rhodes and Cilicia.
he ordered his men to dig a ditch around the palace and build a wall leading to the harbor. This would ensure Caesar's access to the sea.
When Egyptian general Achillas arrived in the city with 20 000 men, the battle for Alexandria began.
With so few men at his disposal, Caesar could not risk a battle just yet. He sent ambassadors to Achillas, in the name of Ptolemy, to propose a truce.
Knowing that the orders did not come from the young king and angered by the pharaoh's imprisonment, Achillas had the messengers assassinated.
With Caesar confined within the palace, Achillas positioned his troops around the city. Skirmishes broke out throughout the streets of Alexandria, and went on for several days and nights.
Though they were outhumbered, Caesar's men were able to hold the enemy back. This prompted Achillas's next move: capture the Roman fleet stationed in the harbor.
Although the palace offered protection, Losing the port meant the end of help and supplies. Caesar knew he had to protect the fleet.
While he and his troops succeeded in regaining control of the port, he knew it would be impossible to sustain.
Caesar ordered the burning of the ships. With passage back to the palace closed off, he headed for the Lighthouse of Alexandria.
Fighting their way through the Egyptian troops, Caesar and his men eventually reached Pharos island. There they took refuge within the lighthouse.
With easy access to the open sea, Caesar was able to send messages to his allies requesting reinforcements and more supplies.
The island fort also allowed him to control access to the harbor by relying on the chains used by the Egyptians to control ship traffic to and from Alexandria's docks.
The exact chronology of events during the war in Alexandria remain imprecise. Conflicting accounts raise questions as to when, and even if, the Great Library of Alexandria was burned down at all.
One account states that during the fighting, docks and warehouses were burned and this was the fire that spread to the library.
In another account, when Achilias cut off the harbor, Caesar had to leave the safety of the palace to defend his ships. As the enemies battled across the port, their arsenals set ships ablaze and this destruction spread to the library.
In either case, the Great Library was not completely destroyed. Experts point out that its location was too far from the harbor, and much later texts refer to the Great Library as being intact.
Warehouses near the harbor contained manuscript copies awaiting export, and itis more likely that these documents were destroyed, than the Great Library.
The destruction of the Great Library may have been due to a number of fires over the ages. Its end was probably closer to the 4th century CE when the Christian Emperor Theodosius I ordered the closure of all pagan temples.
While some documents survived after being moved away, it remains unclear just what knowledge may have been lost.
Where there are accounts of Achillas being in control of the battle against Caesar, it appears that instead Cleopatra's sister, siding with her brother, had him killed and put her ally Ganymedes in his place. Ganymedes proved a valuable tactician for the Egyptian side. It was his idea to cut Caesar's access to the harbor thus trapping Caesar at the palace.
During the time of Ptolemy I, canals had been dug throughout Alexandria to provide fresh water. Ganymedes had his men take control of these canals. After isolating their own water supply, he had his men pour salt water into the canals and cisterns that lead to Caesar's camp.
Panic erupted in Caesar's men. They wouldn't last long without fresh water. Recognizing that the porous limestone could help them, Caesar and his men dug wells to restore their water supply.
Days later, the 37th Legion, comprised of Pompey's soldiers, arrived by ship. Unable to come ashore due to the winds, Caesar risked going out to meet them on the peninsula, Cape Chersonese.
When the enemy learned Caesar's location, they rushed to intercept.
Despite an obvious advantage for the Alexandrians, Caesar, with a Rhodian ship full of skillful sailors, emerged victorious.
With help from the allied ships, Caesar's victory enabled him to push the Egyptians back and secure the Lighthouse.
Gaining control of Pharos island sent the Alexandrians into the sea and swimming back to the city.
However, Caesar's fortification of the island didn't last long.
The enemy regrouped and were set to storm the island.
Panic-stricken, in spite of Caesar's encouragement, many of his men then fled their posts either by ship or jumping into the sea.
Caesar attempted to retreat, but Port Eunostos' harbor was overrun with enemy ships preventing escape.
Reportedly, Caesar gathered his papers and leapt overboard in an attempt to swim to an allied ship farther out.
Historian Cassius Dio claimed that Caesar would've drowned if he hadn't been able to remove his purple garment. Still, he managed to swim the distance and survive.
The Alexandrians recovered the cloak and used it as a trophy to commemorate the Roman debacle.
Unhappy with Ganymedes and wanting their king restored, the Alexandrians approached Caesar with a compromise. Caesar agreed to release Ptolemy XIII, after entreating him to spare the kingdom and remain loyal to Rome. Once freed, however, the king defied the agreement and continued the war.
By this time, a faithful ally of Caesar's, Mithridates, arrived in Egypt, clashing with Ptolemy's troops at Pelusium.
Outnumbering the enemy, Mithridates secured the region between Pelusium and Alexandria.
Ptolemy, warned of Caesar's ally marching on Alexandria, sent his troops to prevent passage over the river.
Mithridates warned Caesar in time, and the two groups confronted the armies of Ptolemy in the Delta.
In the Battle of the Nile, the Romans gained the upper hand, sending the Egyptians fleeing.
In the tumult and panic, King Ptolemy XIII drowned in the Nile.
After the siege ended, Cleopatra VIl married her younger brother, Ptolemy XIV, enabling her to reign over Egypt until 30 BCE.
Under her rule, Alexandria settled into its position within the Roman Empire, and eventually surpassed Athens as one of the most important cities in the Roman Empire.
Julius Caesar remained in Egypt for a short time. He and Cleopatra would later have a son, named Caesarion.
Learn about the city of Alexandria and the Canopic Way.
After conquering Egypt in 331 BCE, Alexander the Great decided to build a new city, which, as per his habit, he named after himself.
After his death, Alexandria quickly became the capital city of the Ptolemaic kingdom, and the most importantly city of the Greek world.
The city was built between the Mediterranean sea and the Lake Mareotis, which resulted in Alexandria becoming a crucial cultural hub and trading center.
Sumptuous buuildings could be seen wherever one turned their gaze: the royal palaces, the many temples, the gymnasium, lush public gardens, and large avenues.
With its incomparable beauty and advantageous geographic location, Alexandria attracted foreigners, intellectuals and traders.
One of the most cosmopolitan city of the ancient world, Alexandria supplanted even Athens as the most important Greek city in history.
Egyptian obelisks were highly prized by Roman architects. While Roman design previously favored use of a single monument, Egyptian obelisks tended to come in pairs and were generally located at the entrance of temples.
Several ancient Egyptian obelisks are stillin existence today, though many are spread out across the world in locations such as Paris, Rome, New York and London.
All of this shows that Alexandria was significantly influenced by the rich past of Egypt.
Alexandria had several main streets. lts most famous artery was the Canopic Way.
It was lined with sumptuous buildings, houses and temples and was roughly 8 kilometers in length.
This street was one of the most important shipping entrances to Alexandria, and often hosted processions and festivals.
The width of the street, 30 meters, was abnormally large even by Greek standards.
This is likely because Canopic Way was made in a short span of time and based on an urban plan, as opposed to being slowly built over time as was usual for the era.
The Canopic Way originated in the western cemeteries, skirted the gymnasium, and then exited the city to head east through massive doorways towards Kanopos. This structure was known as the Canopic Door.
Learn about the design and layout of the city of Alexandria.
Alexander's plan to build his great city began with a verse from Homer's Odyssey.
"There is, in front of Egypt, in the sea with many swells, an island called Pharos."
Guided by these clues, Alexander the Great founded his future city at the western end of the Nile Delta.
Though Alexander considered this location ideal for his great city, it presented considerable challenges.
Too difficult to access during storms, the surrounding swamps threatened disease, and the limestone soil prevented the growth of healthy crops.
However, due to the influence of his mentor Aristotle, Alexander the Great recognized that the true value was its strategic emplacement.
Alexander knew that in controlling Pelusium to the east, Memphis to the south and his crowning glory, Alexandria to the west, he would create a triangular stronghold allowing him to control the entire Delta while giving him access to the Mediterranean.
The great walls of Alexandria had a humble beginning. Lacking chalk to outline the future city's foundations, architects were forced to use flour instead.
Clouds of migrating birds swept down and ate the flour, erasing the plans. This prompted Alexander to seek guidance from the oracles, who reassured him that his future city was destined to feed a large population.
Excavations led by Mahmoud bey El-Falaki in the 19th century revealed that the wall enclosure measured approximately 5.2 kilometers in length, and 2.2 kilometers in width. It was roughly 9 meters in height.
These formidable ancient walls would resist a number of attacks, including fending off the king of Syria in 169 BCE.
It wasn't until 295 CE that they eventually fell to Roman Emperor Diocletian, and this only after eight months of relentless assault.
Alexandria's principle architect, Deinokrates, chose a Hippodamian grid plan.
The grid maximized functionality, with wide straight roads and canals running beneath them.
Alexander recognized the military value of the city's design. The wide parallel streets gave him optimal surveilance of the city while allowing the unobstructed flow of troops.
A central corridor ran from the Mediterranean's north port down to Lake Mareotis to the south. This thoroughfare acted as an unobstructed link for commercial trade and travel between the two ports.
Many of the streets were bordered with grand buildings and parks, including the Canopic Street with its impressive gate bordering the eastern end.
Alexandria was most likely built upon an already existing Egyptian village.
Upon its completion, the Egyptians reviled the city, refusing to call it by its founder's name. Instead, they called it Ra-qed, "the building." as a mark of disdain, which was later Hellenized into Rhakotis.
Despite this, the name Alexandria would remain.
Learn about the major economical role of Alexandria during ancient times.
The ports of Alexandria were a major commercial hub, effectively connecting Egypt with the Mediterranean regions and beyond. À tremendous amount of materials and goods flowed through the city on a daily basis. The large port market was called the Emporion. It was there that the merchandise was traded by the ship owners, called naukleros.
Food and other artisan work streamed out of Egypt; ceramics, glass, golden rings and minted coinage. The local potters, using traditional Egyptian techniques, competed with those from abroad, and the textile industry flourished. What Egypt did not produce itself was acquired through trade using local resources such as wheat and papyrus. Most sought after was pine wood from Syria, iron and marble from the Greek islands, gold from Spain, and exotic fruits from Europe. All this commercial activity contributed to the already decadent wealth of the city.
The wood imported to Port Mareotis through Alexandria's seaward ports was used in the nearby shipyards, where most of Egypt's ships were built. Employing tens of thousands of ship builders, the shipyards contributed to establishing the Egyptian fleet as one of the mightiest of the era. Any wood not used in shipbuilding was further disseminated through Egypt for various purposes.
(Behind the scenes) The southern port of Lake Mareotis was the biggest in Alexandria. Save for a branch angling westward, the lake's size in the Ptolemaic era was roughly 40 to 50 kilometers, from north to south. Its waters were maintained by a steady runoff from the Nile. In addition to the lake, a man-made canal was created to assist in the transfer of goods from the city to the port using barges, though it is not represented in the game due to its size.
Banking was one of the most distinctive innovations brought by the Greeks to Egypt. The centerpiece of Alexandria's wealth was the royal systematisation of taxes on almost everything. Basic items such as salt, oil, beer, wheat and linen were heavily taxed. Às a result, the royal treasury of Alexandria was able to insure the economic stability of most of the administrative areas of Egypt.
By the late 12th century, the channel feeding the lake from the Nile silted up. Lake Mareotis lost its connection to the Mediterranean as well as most of its water, as the lake slowly evaporated to a fraction of its former size. In modern times Lake Mareotis is being kept alive through irrigation. However, only about 17% of its original size remains.
Learn about the various forms of entertainment that existed in Alexandria.
Like most Greek cities, Alexandria offered multiple forms of entertainment. Most were related to cults, religious practices and the festivities surrounding those practices.
Among those festivities, the most important ones were the dynastic celebrations instituted in honor of the deified Ptolemaic kings and queens.
These celebrations could go on for many days and included sacrifices, offerings, processions and public banquets.Games and competitions were organized whenever possible in Locations such as the stadium, the hippodreme and the gymnasium. The residents of Alexandria favored such events, where athletes, poets and musicians from Egypt and other cities of the Greek world competed.
(Behind the Scenes) Like all good Greek cities, Alexandria had a theater. The architecture of this structure is Roman in style. This is because the team duplicated a theater from Cyrene. Roman theaters were usually semicircular and built from scratch on a flat area with structures designed to enhance oration. Greek theaters were more oblong in shape, similar to a horseshoe and favored the slopes of natural hills to support their acoustics.
Atthe theater, one could witness the plays of contemporary, comic and tragic authors. The play you are witnessing below is Menander's Dyskolos, more commonly known as The Grouch, a late and popular entry in the Greek comedies.
Learn how young Alexandrians were educated.
The education of young Alexandrians did not differ from the one generally dispensed elsewhere in Ancient Greece.
At the age of seven, the child was taken in charge by a tutor, who then became responsible for instilling an elementary education, as well as good moral principles.
Teaching was generally done outside, in the open air. In the gymnasium, students were taught not only sports, but also topics such as rhetoric, philosophy, music and poetry - all things deemed essential to ones' education at the time.
(Behind the scenes)
Here, both boys and girls are shown attending a class given by one of the rhetoricians of the era.
The team made the choice to show both genders attending class within the context of the game world. Even though it is historically innacurate, the team felt it was not necessary to prioritize historical sexism over inclusive gameplay.
Discover the history of the greatest library in antiquity and learn about the great minds of the ancient world.
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Near the district of royal palaces and within the Mouseion was the most famous library of all Antiquity.
The Library of Alexandria was built to house all of human knowledge.
At its pinnacle the library was believed to contain over 700,000 parchments.
(Behind the scenes)
Throughout the centuries, fires and wars between Christianity and paganism destroyed the library, leaving nothing behind.
The loss of the building, and more importantly its vast collection, is immeasurable.
As no descriptions are available, the team's rendition of the Library of Alexandria was inspired by the visuals of the library of Celsus at Ephesus.
While much of the collection was purchased at the government's expense, the library also obtained books through other means.
Any books owned by travelers coming through the city were seized to be copied for the library. The copy would then be returned to the owner and the original entered into the library's collection.
Alexandria offered unrivaled intellectual and cultural attractions. Eminent scholars from Athens, Rhodes and other Greek centers traveled to the city to learn and engage with other free thinkers.
Both the Mouseion and the Library were at the center of groundbreaking ideas, and creative expression.
The great minds of antiquity were usually well versed in many disciplines, which were often associated with specific schools of thoughts. The Peripatetics, the Stoics and the Cynics were among the most well-known schools of the time.
It is clear that Alexandria lived up to its fundamental role as a city for intellectuals, nurturing many great minds whose impact reverberates through our modern world.
Hypatia of Alexandria was a Greek mathematician, philosopher, astronomer and inventor.
Though born in Greece, she eventually migrated to Alexandria, like many great minds of the time. Itis there that she became the head of the Neoplatonist School of Alexandria.
From most accounts, she was highly respected by her fellow Alexandrians, both as a teacher and a philosopher.
With her death, the age of great ancient scientific discoveries came to an end.
Kallimachos was born in Cyrene and educated in Athens. After his studies, he moved to Alexandria to work in the Great Library.
A poet and a critic, he strongly rejected the epic format of Homeric poems, and instead fervently supported a shorter, more judiciously formulated style of poetry.
His epigrams and elegiac poems were emulated by later poets. His work was extremely popular, second only to Homer's own works.
It was in Alexandria that mathematician Euclid, the father of geometry, wrote The Elements, laying out the foundational work of what would become modern algebra and number theory.
Euclidean geometry would become one of the most influential systems in the evolution of mathematics.
How do you calculate the circumference of the Earth? With a camel, two sticks and shadows cast by the sun.
This is what Eratosthenes of Cyrene, described in his principal work, Geography, while he was director of the Great Library of Alexandria.
He is credited for the invention of the armillary sphere, around 250 BCE.
The eartiest known and most complete armillary sphere of antiquity was the Meteoroskopion of Alexandria, with an imposing nine rings, compared to the three or four of most other astrolabes.
Known as the Zodiac Krikotoi amongst the Greeks, the Meteoroskopion was used to determine the location of celestial bodies around the Earth.
Every self-respecting astronomer of antiquity would have sought to use this tool to better understand the celestial movements.
Pythagoras of Samos was a well-known and respected philosopher and mathematician. He is best known for the Pythagorean theorem.
However, there is proof that the theorem existed in Babylonia and India long before Pythagoras was born, casting some doubts as to who exactly originated the theorem.
Learn about the Mouseion of Alexandria and its function within the city.
The Mouseion was a sector of the city commissioned by Ptolemy |, to rival Athens' Academy as an institute of intellectual pursuit. Dedicated to the nine inspiring Muses, the Mouseion became a great center for philosophical and scientific enlightenment. It welcomed scholars from many kingdoms, inviting them to share knowledge in literature, science and geography.
The Mouseion was designed so that its buildings and grounds would accommodate free thinking, debate and presentation. Meeting spaces and theaters surrounded a main courtyard. Expansive gardens were filled with exotic plants that aided in the study and supply of herbs and medicines. A zoo offered the study of animal behavior and physiology. Also among the Mouseion's many star attractions was its astronomical observatory.
Herophilos was a physician who lived most of his life in Alexandria. He was able to perform the dissection of human cadavers on a large scale due to the permissiveness of the city in such matters. Among many other discoveries, he learned that the brain was central to the human nervous system. He also extensively mapped the blood system and measured the pulse with the aid of a water clock. It is reported that in his thirst to understand human anatomy, he performed 600 vivisection on five prisioners.
In order to be free to pursue their research, scholars were fed and housed at the Mouseion at the government's expense. This freedom provided Alexandria's scholars a meeting space for intellectual pursuits, and a haven for spiritual peace. Though nothing remains of the original Mouseion, it lives on as the legacy of our modern museums.
Learn about the Serapeion of Alexandria and its function within the city.
In a city of numerous magnificent attractions, the Serapeion was considered to be the most beautiful temple of Alexandria.
Located southwest of the city on a small hill known as the Acropolis, the sanctuary was constructed during the reign of Ptolemy III, upon foundations which had existed since the reign of Ptolemy I Soter.
Visitors of the Serapeion climbed a hundred steps to reach the courtyard.
Libraries were installed in the porticoes surrounding the square building, with its roof and columns adorned with gold and gilded bronze. Pharaohs were generous to the temple, as were several Roman emperors after Egypt's conquest.
An inner temple housed the statue of Serapis, dedicated to healing the sick.
Since the 26th dynasty, Greeks in Egypt had gradually integrated the Egyptian cult of the Apis bull to their own rituals.
With the establishment of the Ptolemaic dynasty, the cult of Apis was further integrated into Greek religion.
During his rule, Ptolemy I chose to merge Egyptian and Hellenic gods into a syncretic divinity named Serapis. This name was the result of the amalgamation of Osiris and Apis.
With this new deity, the Ptolemaic dynasty managed to accommodate similar belief sets for two different cultures, bringing about a new dynastic cult.
Serapis was also associated to other deities, including Asclepius, a Greek god of healing.
It is possible that as with the Serapis temple of Kanopos, the sick would visit this sanctuary, sleeping there overnight in the hopes of being healed within its hallowed halls.
Learn about the Islands of Pharos, and the monuments located on the islands.
The Heptastadion was a bridge-like causeway connecting the island of Pharos to mainland Alexandria.
Its name is based on the Greek terms of measurement: hepta meaning seven and stadion, which is a measure of length of roughly 180 meters.
Since its construction would seperate the Grand Port to the east and the Port of Eunostos to the west, it was designed with channels at each end.
These openings allowed passage from one port to the other.
Along with creating seperate harbors for the commercial and military shipping, the causeway served as a main aqueduct for the island's inhabitants.
Its presence also helped protect the island its ports from rough wind and sea currents.
At the end of antiquity, the Heptastadion disappeared under layers of slit and soil, which formed an important sedimentary deposit.
While the Serapeion was the most celebrated of the temples in Alexandria, many other temples were built within the city.
Most of these structures have been completely erased over time, and there is no way to discern how many existed.
However, research of ancient papyri offer tantalizing hints as to the possible location of at least some of the temples.
Both papyri and coins reveal evidence of many temples built for the gods.
Poseidon, the god of the sea, likely had an edifice in his honor west of this island, as well as on the main land.
This temple next to you is dedicated to Iset Pharia, the divine protector of the lighthouse. This location hosted annual celebrations in the month of April known as the Sacrum Pharia, in connection to the lighthouse.
In her incarnation as Iset Fortuna, the goddess carries a rudder and a cornucopia, both symbols of good luck for navigators.
Considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Lighthouse of Alexandria was a source of great pride for the inhabitants of the city.
Construction began under Ptolemy I's reign and lasted fifteen years. It was completed during his son's rule.
Once completed the lighthouse was dedicated to the gods, for the salvation of those who sail the sea.
Built on the island of Pharos, the stone structure was three tiers set on top of one another in a step formation.
The second floor consisted of an octagonal tower and the top floor was a cylindrical tower topped by a statue.
The interior provided space for staff rooms and a ramp, which allowed the transport of fuel to the upper floors.
Essential to safe navigation through the rifts and shallow waters, the Pharos was a functioning lighthouse, with a beam reported visibl 50 kilometers away.
It's unclear what kind of fuel was used, or how much. Any other details of how the light worked remain a mystery.
For several centuries the Pharos was one of the highest monuments ever built by man. It measured roughly 110 meters in height, compared to the Pyramid of Giza which was 140 meters tall.
Gradually the structure was eroded by earthquakes, and then completely destroyed in 1480 CE when a fort was built over it.
Archaeological excavations on the seabed have uncovered many blocks from the ancient building.
Learn about the Paneion of Alexandria.
The Paneion was a temple built in honor of the god Pan, divinity of nature.
This Greek god, often represented as a half-man, half-goat with a beard, horns and goat's hooves, was considered the protector of shepherds and herds.
Pan's attribute was his namesake musical instrument: the pan flute. His temples were usually located in caves and on high mountains, and were frequented by shepherds.
It is likely that Mediterranean cults adopted the imagery of Pan to symbolize the Christian devil.
To give proper honor to the god, Alexandrians built an artificial hill upon which they housed his temple, to compensate for the flat relief of the city. The artificial mound had the shape of a spinning top or a pine cone, which was accessed by a spiral staircase. The top had a panoramic view of the entire city. Only such heights would be fitting for a mountain god.
Learn about the events held at the hippodrome.
The main hippodrome of the city was called the Lageion, in honor of Lagos, the ancestor of the Ptolemies.
Alexandrians were great lovers of horse racing. They were fascinated by the rivalry of these races, the agôn as it was said at that time, that every competition brought.
It was a struggle for glory.
The most important chariot race was the tethrippon. Using four horses, with the quickest harnessed to the front right, the charioteer would race for twelve laps, with sharp turns at either end of the hippodrome.
The victors were crowned with garlands of olive and received prize money, but the most sought-after reward was to be acelaimed by the works of poets such as Kallimachos and Pindar.
“Ye hymns that rule the lyre! What god, what hero, aye, and what man shall we loudly praise? Verily Zeus is the lord of Pisa; and Heracles established the Olympic festival, [...) while Thêrôn must be proclaimed by reason of his victorious chariot with its four horses, Thêrôn who is just in his regard for guests, and who is the bulwark of Acragas, the choicest flower of an auspicious line of sires, whose city towers on high, (...) bringing wealth and glory to crown their native merits.”
Understand the significance of the mummies for ancient Egyptians.
The oldest mummies recovered date from the Old Kingdom, though Egyptologists believe that mummification was in use much earlier than that.
At first, the body was mummified through environmental desiccation, by leveraging the dryness of the environment and the heat of the climate.
Earty experimentations in mummification were conducted with the use of resin made from tree sap. Strips of linen were only used on some superficial parts of the epidermis of the hands, or jaw.Ideologically, the will to preserve the body is not explained in any way until 3600 BCE. This is when the Egyptian belief that the body housed the soul was finally documented for modern Egyptologists to eventually decipher. Itwas not until the arrival of the myth of Osiris in the Egyptian religion, around the 5th Dynasty, that mummification was thoroughly conceptualized. The practice was thereafter grounded in both a mythological and ideological point of view.
Osiris was mainly known as the god of the dead, and the god of resurrection. The most well-known genesis myth concerning Osiris is that of his dismemberment.
It is Plutarch who gives the most simplified and complete summary of the story. Within Egyptian mythology, Osiris represented the first king to rule Egypt. Jealous of his power, his brother Seth attempted to usurp his throne. After several unsuccessful attempts, Seth succeeded in killing his brother by dismembering him, and scattering the pieces of his body all over Egypt. Iset, the Great of Magic, traveled all over Egypt in search of the pieces of her husband's body. After a long search, she recovered all the pieces, save for his manhood, as it was eaten by a fish.
Iset then reassembled the body of her husband by binding it together with strips of linen. Aided by her sister Nephthys, another powerful magician, they gave Osiris the breath of life. This not only brought him back from the dead, but also allowed him to recover his virility long enough to impregnate Iset, thus insuring his succession before, once more, dying. Thus, Horus was born.
The ritual used to bring Osiris back to life essentially depicts how he became the first mummy. It is why, on the sarcophagi of kings, we often find Iset and Nephthys represented as the magicians who restore life to the deceased.
Learn about the process of mummification in Ancient Egypt.
The mummification process used by Ancient Egyptians was highly ceremonialin nature.
The different types of mummification took into account the social Level and richness of the deceased, and even included animals.
The most expensive was that reserved for the pharaoh and the royal family, as well as some of the wealthiest members of the court.The first step was cleaning. Once bodies arrived at the mummification site, they were placed on inclined tables while the bodily fluids drained away. They were then cleaned by priests, until they were deemed ready for the purification process.
The purification of the body began with a libation from sacred water. The priests then fumigated the body with terebinth resin. After the ritual cleansing, priests used oils, spices and all kinds of essences to further purify the body of the deceased. Finally, all body hair was meticulously removed.
Once the body was properly purified, embalmers removed the organs, following very specific procedures. First, the brain was extracted by inserting a spoon through the nostril to break the ethmoid bone. Then, using a spatula, the pieces of the brain were removed as thoroughly as possible. What matter remained was extracted after a process of liquification achieved through the use of a caustic liquid. The cranial box, once emptied, was rinsed and disinfected with palm wine, and then stuffed with strips of linen cloth and liquefied resin.
After taking care of the brain, embalmers made an incision on the left flank and carefully set aside the viscera. The inside of the body was also rinsed with palm wine. Then, the embalmers filled the belly with pure myrrh, cinnamon and other perfumes and sewed it shut. The removed viscera were washed in palm wine, and packed in crushed herbs before being placed in canopic jars.
Canopic jars were placed close to the sarcophagus, or kept in a chest nearby. At first, the viscera were wrapped in tissue and placed in the vases. As the ritual requirements became more elaborate, ointments, spices and even water and natron were added to the process.
Towards the middle of the New Kingdom, canopic jars assumed the appearance of the four sons of Horus.
They were known as the protectors of the viscera. These protectors had their own guardians, each a goddess of the dead.
Imsety, the human-headed god, protected the liver, and was protected by the goddess Iset. Hapi, the baboon-headed god, protected the lungs, and was protected by the goddess Nephthys.
Duamutef, the jackal-headed god, protected the stomach, and was protected by the goddess Neith.
And finally Kebehsenuef, the falcon-headed god, protected the intestines, and was protected by the goddess Selket.Natron is a naturally occurring mineral found in evaporite. These sedimentary rocks are made up of mineral salts, and were generally mined from lakebeds in Egypt.
Embalmers used natron as a desiccant, to dry the flesh and stop the corpse's putrefaction process. Once the body was cleansed and eviscerated, the deceased was covered in natron for about forty days. Once desiccated, the body was prepared to be wrapped in strips of linen.
Once the body was fully desiccated by the natron treatment, embalmers oiled, painted, and sometimes even added hair extensions or a wig. They often used a henna-based antiseptic preparation to give the body a more colorful and lively appearance, while preparing it to resist molds and fungi.
Next came the phase which gave mummies their most well-known appearance: the wrapping. Originally, each part of the body was wrapped separately. Men had their arms crossed on their chests, while women had the right arm folded over their breasts, and the left arm stretched along the body. However, techniques evolved over time. Eventually the body as a whole was wrapped with limbs alongside the body, and increasingly sophisticated and different techniques of weaving flax bands were developed.
In addition to the jewelry and amulets arranged on the skin of the deceased, amulets were also carefully inserted into the weaving of the linen strips. Each amulet was linked to a myth or to an ideological belief related to rebirth.
Masks were an important part of a mummy's finery. Early wooden funeral coverings were very expensive, however, and soon replaced by masks created through a technique known as cartonnage.
Masks fashioned with this method were created by laying several layers of linen or papyrus pulp on a base made of mud or straw.
Cartonnage was used for more than funerary masks. Ornaments and the animal coffins of the Late Period were also made in such a fashion.Cartonnage evolved to cover the entire body of the mummy during the 22nd Dynasty. The mummies were placed on a board inside a rigid envelope of cartonnage, which was laced at the back with a string. Extremely cost effective and visually pleasing, this technique was very popular through all layers of the society.
Cartonnage envelopes were usually covered with inscriptions and polychrome decorations specifying the names and titles of the deceased, scenes depicting daily life, or decorations specific to the funerary world. This was a true gift for Egyptologists eager to study the funerary rites of the ancient Egyptians.
Once the mummy was properly wrapped and adorned, the embalmers proceeded with the ceremony of the Opening of the Mouth. A vital step of the funerary process, this ceremony was meant to bring back to life the deceased themselves, or an object representing the deceased.
There were no less than seventy-five different stages for the Opening of the Mouth. It required the application of the same coils, ointments, spices, and perfumes used during the mummification process. Make-up was sometimes part of the process as well.
The last stage of this long ritual was the act of touching the mouth with the adze to symbolically allow the breath of life to infuse an inert body. Its performance was reserved for a very specific set of people: priests who wore the mask of the god Anubis, a close relative of the family or by the heir to the throne.
Understand the importance of mummies for ancient Egyptians.
The first hieroglyph for embalmer appeared in pyramid texts of the Old Kingdom.
It is likely that embalming was a trade that progressed alongside the evolution of ancient Egyptian funeral practices.
While we still know nothing of how embalming came to be a profession, we do know that embalmers had a hierarchy, and that each embalmer specialized in a specific phase of the mummification process.The mummification techniques were jealously guarded by embalmers from generation to generation. Despite their efforts, Herodotus and Diodorus discovered their methods in late Antiquity, but historians were sceptical about the validity of the texts. It remained a mystery until two teams of modern medico-legal scientists confirmed the process in 1994, and again in 2011.
The ouabet, meaning the pure place, was where the embalmers mummified the bodies of the deceased. Until the end of the Middle Kingdom, it was located in tents at the edges of the city due to the smell of decomposition. In the New Kingdom, however, the ouabet was located within the city limits, though stillin open-air spaces. In the same way that the practices and techniques of mummification evolved, so possibly did consideration towards embalmers within ancient Egyptian society.
The pharaoh had access to the most elaborate of mummification rituals. The richer citizens of Egypt also enjoyed complex embalming options, though none of them allowed for the removal of the brain or viscera. After purifying the body, embalmers injected a liquid through the rectum, sealed it, and allowed the mixture to settle. They then plunged the body into natron for up to forty days. Once the body was dried the seal was removed, and the entrails flowed out with the injected liquid, leaving the skin and bones of the deceased to be wrapped in linen and returned to the family for burial.
The least costly embalming option was for the embalmers to simply inject a product called surmaia, and immerse the body in the natron for up to forty days before handing it over to the family. For all those who could not afford any embalming process, desert burials offered a pauper's alternative to preserve the bodies of the dead.
Egyptian civilization has always appealed to Westerners, even before the Greek and Roman invasions. As early as the Middle Ages, mummies discovered by travelers were often sent back to Europe. Curio cabinets dating from the 16th and 17th centuries usually included pharaonic artifacts in their collections.
The Egyptomania phenomenon was heralded by Napoleon Bonaparte's Egyptian campaign, which lasted from 1798 to 1802. The following years were marked by a resurgence of interest from rich enthusiasts and scholars, who exposed Egypt to the general populace. Many research societies focusing on Egyptology were founded during those years.
By 1868, mass tourism began in Egypt, under the aegis of the Cook agency. The rich would indulge in Leisure trips to Egypt, and bring back mummies. Upon their return, they would organize evenings that consisted of unpacking mummies, and removing strips of linen and amulets layer by layer. These were considered the shining cultural events of the season. The Egyptian collections of many a museum were founded as a consequence of this mass pillaging.
Thanks to those dubious parties, the fantasy of a mummy coming back to life seeking revenge on its defilers was born. The mummy malediction myth has remained steady in popular culture ever since, particularly in written media and cinema.
Understand how magic and religion was an essential aspect of ancient Egyptian life.
Ancient Egyptians believed the world was a chaotic place, filled with supernatural forces. They knew that art and words gave life and power to things.
Carved with images from hieroglyphs or in the shapes of gods, amulets were highly personal objects that warded off dangers and disease while attracting success.
Some amulets were temporary, intended to solve a specific problem, while others were meant to be worn forever into the afterlife.Priests would infuse amulets with magical energy during religious ceremonies, imbuing them with protective magic to safeguard against supernatural powers. The wealthiest of Egyptians could obtain a divinely ordained pendant, in which was hidden a magic formula inscribed on a piece of papyrus. It would act as a unique spell tailored to the owner.
Religion was so important to ancient Egyptians that it permeated every aspect of their daily lives. Since water was the source of life and had the symbolism of purifying the body and the soul, all daily routines began with ablutions. Personal prayers to the gods were sometimes written or spoken, with family prayers passed down through generations.
There was a complete calendar of each of the religious days, both good and bad, illustrating the appropriate daily rituals. Along with wine, milk and ointments, offerings to the gods consisted of small amulets to life-size statues and family shrines. During the Greco-Roman period offerings to the gods consisted of mummified animals. Cats for Bastet, dogs for Anubis, and birds for Thoth.
Deemed messengers of the gods, oracles offered guidance and judgment for all Egyptians, regardless of status. Crucial advice was offered on everything from day-to-day farming management to a pharaoh's decision on whether to start a war. Oracles were often used to decide legal issues. If the accused refused the judgment of the god, another god could be consulted in hopes of a more favorable reply.
Itwas oracles that guided the Greek sailor Battos to the coast of Libya where he founded a colony known as Cyrene. During Alexander the Great's campaign to conquer Persia, he consulted the oracle at the temple of Ammon within the oasis of Siwa, and was subsequently ordained a divine being.
Learn about the importance of the pharaoh and of the priests in ancient rituals, and understand the influence of temples in ancient Egyptian society.
During rituals and festivals, the god was carried on a solar barge between the areas of a temple, or the temples of different cities.
Funerary carvings and paintings covering thousands of years as well as the Book of the Dead, depict the same ship and oar design.
Solar barges have been uncovered near or within several pharaohs' tombs.
They were intended to carry the pharaoh into the afterlife.Ancient Egyptians believed that Ra, the sun god, traveled the skies in a boat known as the solar barge. The solar barge was believed to cross over to mythological lands.
The god Ra believed mankind was conspiring against him. He ordered Sekhmet, the lion-headed war goddess, to kill all humans. To his chagrin, Ra quickly realized that with all humans gone there would be no one left to worship him. In order to stop the rampaging Sekhmet, beer was brewed and dyed red with pomegranate juice to resemble blood. Sekhmet drank every drop of the brew she could find, eventually passing out drunk. When she awoke, she was calmer, and her lion visage had changed into Bastet. The Festival of Drunkenness was celebrated in honor of that myth.
Unlike the daily rituals that took place in the temple and were performed by priests, festivals allowed the entire population of the city to participate. Festivals helped mark the passing of the seasons in the agricultural calendar. In reflecting the cycles of life, festivals offered a sense of consistency and structure for the regular citizens, thus reinforcing the sense of order that pharaohs were to provide for the citizens of Egypt as part of their godly duties.
The importance of these festivals is demonstrated by their longevity. Records show that Osiris festivals occurred for more than 2000 years. Some festivals served to reinforce state control, and promote the king's reign. Both the Opet and Sed jubilee festivals were specifically intended to celebrate the renewal of the king's power.
The temple hierarchy consisted of high priests, several types of priests, scribes and servants. The high priest was known as the prophet. Some divinities had up to four prophets, and they were the ones to perform the most advanced and complex rituals.
Egyptian priests were not confined to solely religious tasks, and in fact had crucial roles in Egypt's administration, most of which served to reaffirm the pharaoh as the proper vessel for the gods. Their focus within the temple was centered on the proper conduct of daily divine rituals, rather than as custodians of dogma or the indoctrination of individuals.
Scribes were custodians of the sacred sciences. Some priests were associated with the funeral rites and were considered the group with medical knowledge. The servants of the ka were low-ranking priests who carried food and offerings in funerary rituals. Lector priests were distinguished by their ability to read, and their main duty was to recite specialized religious texts in both temple and funerary rituals.
Priests and all the officials who served the temple worked only three months a year, with each period separated by a quarter of inactivity, at least within the temple compund. Each outgoing group handed over the temple and their tools to the newcomers. Only the high priesthood remained in permanent office within the temple.
(Behind the Scenes) The most sacred part of the temple was referred to as djesr djesru, the “holy of holies.” The most sacred inner sanctuary was where the shrine to the temple deity was located. Only priests were allowed within. Offerings were given, and rituals unseen by even the pharaoh were performed. While the team chose to allow any character access to this space in some game temples, normally it was reserved for priests alone.
Pharaohs and their priests often chose the site of these sacred temples because of some mythological connection, or an alignament with the cardinal points and certain stars. Once selected, a foundation ritual was performed.
The pharaoh was required to complete 10 steps in the ritual, which required a mix of offerings as well as specific construction techniques.
Once the temple was complete, construction of the chamber containing the shrine, or naos, began.The naos was where the god statue stood. The representation of the deity was usually in stone or wood and decorated with gold, silver and precious stones. Smaller temples had only one naos, while larger complexes such as the temple of Karnak had many chambers to honor gods such as Amun, Ptah, and Osiris. Each statue was believed to be a receptacle for the presence or essence of the god's ka, enabling it to take a physical form. Through the statue, the god came to the shrine to eat, drink, and communicate with the pharaoh, or with the priests standing in for the pharaoh.
Learn about the influence of temples in Egyptian societym and the role of the pharaoh and priests in ancient rituals.
From its foundation, the city of Memphis favored worship of the god Ptah.
The main temple of Ptah was known as Hut-ka-Ptah, meaning palace of the ka of Ptah.
The name of the temple, translated into Greek as Aegyptos, would eventually evolve into the modern name: Egypt.Temples were the center of religious, political and economic life in ancient Egypt. These sacred places were viewed as the literal home of the gods and goddesses. As such, every aspect of them required care and reverence, all of which was accomplished through elaborate ritual.
Located in the center of Memphis, the temple of Ptah was the most prominent and imposing building in the city. The long walkway leading toward the temple, known as the dromos, was guarded by rows of sphinxes. The entire sacred area was designed to keep the statue of the god protected deep within the sacred enclosures that surrounded it.
The dromos opened into a courtyard, with a surrounding portico graced with columns carved to resemble palm trees. During special festivals the general population was allowed to enter this location, but under no circumstances would they be allowed into the sacred spaces beyond the courtyard.
The Memphis Alabaster Sphinx was discovered in 1912, almost completely buried in water and sand.
Eight meters in height and weighing in at roughly 90 tons, it is still mounted on its original pedestal.
Though it is called the Alabaster Sphinx, it was in fact carved from common calcite rock, which is similar in appearance and texture to alabaster.Erosion has destroyed the original engravings, making it difficult to determine when it was created. Egyptologists believe that its facial likeness resembles Amenhotep Il, and so it could have been sculpted somewhere between 1700 and 1400 BCE. Itis believed that this monument once stood outside of the temple of Ptah, and was integrated into subsequent extensions to the complex.
The size of the imposing sculpture reflects the importance it had to the temple during the New Kingdom. This sphinx is one of the few remaining artifacts from the ruins of Memphis to survive.
In Egyptian culture some animals were associated with gods, while others were considered to be Living gods. The Apis bull was believed to be a divine entity. The earliest mention of the Apis bullin ancient Egypt goes back as far as the 1st Egyptian dynasty.
Originally the symbol of fertility, the Apis bull was linked to the god Ra, with the image of the sun carried between its horns. Later it was associated with Osiris, the ruler of the underworld, thus becoming the funerary divinity Osorapis. During the 18th Dynasty in Memphis, the Apis bull's association with the city's deity earned it the title “Herald of Ptah." The Apis bull was so revered that even Alexander the Great, upon his arrival in Memphis, gave honor to Apis.
The Apis buil lived with its harem in a sacred barn located in an enclosure in the temple of Ptah.
Each bull bore twenty-nine signs representative of it's divinity. Among them, the bull had an eagle-shaped mark on its back, a double tail hair and a scarab-shaped mark under the tongue. The signs were intended to correspond with the lunar cycle.
After its death, Egyptians would search for its reincarnated form among the livestock.Like other living divinities, the mortal incarnation of the Apis bull was prayed to, and when it died, it was given a luxurious funeral which included mummification. Until the reign of Ramses II, the Apis bulls were buried in individual graves in Saqgara. During the 26th dynasty, the bodies of the bulls were buried in enormous stone vats in the underground corridors of the Serapeum of Memphis.
Ancient Egyptians believed that temple rituals were essential to maintain order in the cosmos, and allow communication between humans and gods. The pharaoh was required to bring offerings, as part of a twofold promise made to the gods: to remain a just ruler, and to prevent chaos from entering Egypt.
Details of the ceremonies found on temple walls provide a thorough overview of the stages of the daily ritual. Performed three times a day to mirror human meal times, each step of the highly symbolic ceremony was accompanied by specific recitations, many of which referred to mythical events.
The high priest would first awaken the sleeping god with a chant. Then the seals of the shrine's doors were broken, and the bolts drawn back. The act of swinging open the doors was a symbolic gesture, where sight was granted to the deity. The priest would then bow, and kiss the ground.
The god was then washed with incense-infused water, and its mouth rinsed with mineral salts. The cleansing was followed by adorning the statue with jewels and royal garments. The final ritual required the priest to sweep away any footprints in order to prevent evil from approaching the god.
Heredity was the primary source of new recruits. Rarely was an outsider allowed this position. At the top of the temple hierarchy was the high priest. Each temple dedicated to a god had at least one high priest devoted to its care and service. During the Ptolemaic dynasty, one family held the position of High Priest in Memphis for almost 300 years.
High priest candidates made their way up the ranks of the temple hierarchy. The one chosen to occupy the lofty position of high priest was usually confirmed by the pharaoh. Several of the high priests were also important officials in the government. Families sharing the highest priesthood titles tended to make many alliances, thereby gaining more land and wealth. Shifting balances of power sometimes resulted in more or less open conflicts between the priesthood and the pharaohs.
In the 21st dynasty, Thebes became the capital of an almost entirely theocratic government. The city was headed by king-priests who spoke and governed in the name of god Amun, in open opposition to the ruling pharaohs. These kings-priests caused a massive decentralization of power, known as the Third Intermediate Period.
The educational institution in ancient Egypt was known as the House of Life. Attended by the offspring of the elite and the clergy, it was a place tailored to the social status of its attendees. The eartiest references to this type of institution date back to royal decrees of the Old Kingdom.
Only two known centers have been uncovered, one in the abandoned city of Akhetaten and one at the temple of Ramses II, on the west bank of Thebes. Inscriptions uncovered in those locations mention the names and titles of people who were connected with the House of Life, such as a chief physician and many scribes. Itis presumed that by the Late Kingdom, every temple had a House of Life.
The House of Life offered training for the elite destined for occupations such as astronomers, doctors, veterinarians, diplomats, architects, translators or theologians. Some institutions focused on specific disciplines, making them a central hub for the country.
Not limited to instruction for young students, the House of Life was a source of reference for many scholars, with rooms dedicated to papyri of many disciplines. Because papyri were preserved there, the Greco-Romans referred to the House of Life as a library.
Ancient Egyptian economy was based on an unequal system of redistribution of goods. The state of Egypt collected the crops, and the temples distributed them throughout the provinces. Since the only people capable of counting and ensuring a fair redistribution were the educated scribes, this meant that the temples played a pivotal role in this process.
There are records of pharaohs making offerings of large tracts of land and animals to temples in order to maintain their favor. Ramses III offered generous gifts to the temple of Amun in Karnak in such a manner.
Palaces, warehouses, and granaries were built inside the temple compound to better control the redistribution of goods. The size of the recorded numbers of goods combined with every other function filled by temples only serves to confirm their might as economic, religious and political centers of power within Egypt.
Understand the different techniques used by ancient Egyptians to quarry stone blocks, and build their monuments.
Constructed with bricks made of mud, most ancient Egyptian buildings were not permanent.
Only religious temples and funerary monuments were meant to stand the ravages of time.
For these very important structures, Egyptians used limestone, sandstone, and harder materials such as granite, quartzite and travertine. These heavy stone blocks were so prized that they were often transported from quarries located hundreds of kilometers away.Limestone was common and easy to extract from quarries on the east bank of the Nile. This particular limestone had marine fossils in it however, preventing it from being easily decorated and polished. Used as the main building material, the structure would then be finished with a finer limestone that was polished smooth, and decorated as needed. Limestone was used for the building of the first pyramids, and for most of the religious buildings of the Old and Middle Kingdoms.
Ancient Egyptians preferred to use sedimentary rock beds, or layers like sandstone and limestone, because they were often easier to extract. The common method used to extract stone was the open pit quarry. Stone cutters would find quality stone, shape and dig it out on site. Open pit quarries enabled many workers to work simultaneously on many blocks, which allowed for better productivity.
Workers would draw a large grid directly on the stone's surface, taking care to leave a space between the blocks. This allowed them to isolate the different blocks and create a trench that would make the extraction easier. Stone workers used iron chisels for hard rock, and bronze or copper tools for softer rocks such as limestone. Removing material between each block created a trench line. In some quarries, that trench was wide enough to accommodate a worker, who would then cut the block entirely on site. For harder rocks like granite, workers cut a series of holes and hammered wooden wedges into them. They then soaked the wood until it swelled and caused the rock to split.
The gallery extraction technique was used when the desired rock was buried under layers of rubble. This method was often necessary in order to find the whiter and finer limestone required for a smoother finish. The first step was for the stone workers to create an access pit that would allow them to reach the desired wall of stone. Once a wall of quality stone was exposed, workers could then cut out smaller blocks. This pit required a descending platform. Designed like a stairway, it allowed them to free multiple galleries of blocks.
To cut the stone, they created a longitudinal kerf, or slit, and then cut the rock at a 90-degree angle. The lower side was determined along the geological layers or by using a horizontal cut. Wooden wedges were inserted in the rock and hammered in. Shock waves were then generated using hammers, fracturing the blocks at the seam.
To maintain the stability of these mining pits over the course of quarrying, workers would leave support sections of unexcavated rock.
In every quarry, dedicated shrines were established to offer protection for the workers. In particular, Serket, the scorpion goddess, was considered a very powerful deity among quarry workers. Every mine and quarry of ancient Egypt included a scorpion charmer, who was said to use magical powers to ward off the dangerous insects and keep the workers safe.
Understand who were the people involved in the creation of ancient Egyptian monuments, and understand the techniques used to quarry stone blocks and transport monuments.
Whether workers were employed for the pyramid construction or at the quarries, the government supplied food and housing.
Workers for the pyramids and royal necropolises were housed in more permanent villages such as the famous Deir el-Medina. Quarry workers had more temporary lodgings.
Al skill levels were needed and utilized, from basic workhands to prepare the gypsum, to brick makers and sand carriers, to skilled stonemasons to shape the blocks.Skilled architects and engineers were employed year-round, while support labor were often farmers who worked on the quarries or construction during the Nile's flood season. The basic laborers were hard-working and versatile. Many may have been farmers who joined the construction during the off-season. Hieroglyphs found in the work villages listed assigned job titles.
Archeological research shows that no food was stored or prepared on site, but instead workers received abundant rations of bread, beer and meat. These rations were taken care of by an administration outside the village. Medical treatment was also available for those who were injured.
While some quarries were closer to the Nile, others were located across the desert and required long expeditions. These expeditions were sanctioned by the state. They involved complex logistics, and required many participants. Transporting a block by land meant that workers had to overcome the weight and friction of the load. To solve this, they first dug a track in the ground. This path was sometimes reinforced with rails upon which a sled used to ferry the blocks would be pulled.
Whenever possible, blocks were toppled from a higher elevation onto the sled.
Workers then poured water onto the clay at the front of the sled, creating a slick surface to more easily move the load.
It wasn't until the New Kingdom that animals were used to tow the burden.During flood season, the Nile was at its largest and deepest, which allowed the transportation of the heaviest and biggest loads. Quarries close to the river had troughs dug out to deliver the stones to the shoreline. Harbors and wharfs situated at the river's edge allowed the transfer of materials and supplies. Harbor warehouses accommodated additional stocks of stone so that they were available for the winter sailing season.
The Ouadi el-Jarf papyri detail a limestone load intended for the Khufu pyramid that weighed in at 70-80 tons, or thirty blocks. One papyrus is a fragment from a foreman's notes taken while working on the Great Pyramid. It details the transportation of limestone blocks from the Tura quarries to the construction site of the pyramid. The other papyri are shipping logs containing archives of the sailors assigned to sail the Red Sea and the Nile.
Stone cargo generally weighed 15 tons per boat, amounting to roughly six or seven blocks per trip. For heavier Loads such as obelisks, monolithic pillars or gigantic statues, larger boats were used. These transports are the ones typically showcased on temple walls.
River transportation was the most efficient way to ferry stone blocks between the quarry and the construction site. Blocks were transported by flotillas of several types of boats. The most detailed illustration of transport by river is a relief of Queen Hatshepsut's barge with an accompanying flotilla.
Learn about the basic agricultural food production techniques, and understand how the Nile was at the center of Ancient Egypt wealth.
While crops were cultivated in different cases around the desert, most of the arable lands were near the Nile.
Two types of cereal grain were cultivated: barley, and an ancient wheat known as emmer.
These two key ingredients contributed in establishing bread and beer as the staple of the Egyptian diet, and the basis of its economy.The Ptolemaic era created an agricultural revolution with the introduction of advanced agricultural techniques and new grain types such as rice, durum wheat and pearl millet. The resulting agricultural mass production greatly increased the economy of ancient Egypt. It also prompted the development of storage and transportation, allowing long-distance trade with other regions.
Both bread and beer rations were part of a system of barter payment. The state used those goods to pay wages for those who worked in the quarries and at the construction sites. Beer was so important to ancient Egyptians they had a goddess of beer brewing: Tenenet. Tenenet is seen in many paintings and sculptures with beer, and women are depicted as the primary beer makers.
In order to increase agricultural production, fertile land was divided into plots, and large agricultural villages were encouraged. The state and temples were the biggest landowners. Depending on the region, fertile land was managed by civil servants, or rented to individuals. Ancient Egyptians relied on rudimentary tools for land cultivation. Soil was broken down with hoes, and wing plows were used to make furrows.
The three seasons known as Akhet, Peret and Shemu corresponded to a specific phase of the agricultural process and the river's natural changes. Akhet, was the time of the flood, beginning with the appearance of the star Sirius in July. Peret was the time when lands were cultivated, plowed and sown. This fell between October and November. Shemu ran from May to September, and was when harvesting and taxation began.
The pharaoh's duty was to uphold order against chaos, and provide for his people. Priests and local governors also wanted to appear as protectors of the people.
However, any variation in the Nile's seasons could cause water shortages. This had devastatingconsequences on wheat and barley crops.
The pharaoh, administrators and priests knew they needed to demonstrate their ability to prevent such a catastrophe from happening, and so they invented the story which would be inscribed upon the Famine stela.The story begins with the pharaoh worried for his people. The Nile hasn't flooded in years and his people are starving. In search of the origins of the flooding, Djoser seeks out Khnum, the protector god of the region and the source of the drought. Djoser gives the god offerings and orders his priests to restore the temple of Khnum. These offerings please the god, and the floods are restored. This story was intended to highlight the importance of the deity in everyone's daily lives, while also demonstrating the crucial role that the priests and the king played in feeding and protecting the people of Egypt.
Learn about the ancient Egyptian agricultural techniques.
The new grain types of the Ptolemaic period required a great deal of water. Farmers needed to ensure they had effective, consistent irrigation. The Nile's rising and receding waters naturally irrigated most of the crops. Areas where the Nile didn't reach, such as gardens and vegetable plots, required an irrigation tool known as the shadoof. The shadoof allowed easy transport of water from its source. It consisted of a tall wooden frame with a long pivoting pole and suspended bucket. The system could be raised and lowered with little effort.
Later a sakia, or water wheel, was invented. The sakia needed animals to turn the wheel, which rotated buckets through the water. It drew the water to an elevation of 3.5 meters, and enabled a great deal of control over the irrigation process. This improvement supplied larger areas and thus resulted in larger harvests.
The threshing process separated the grain from its husk. Workers would spread the ears on clean ground. Oxen, cows or donkeys were then guided back and forth to trample the grain. This continuous movement worked the grain loose while preventing the animals from eating it. Unwanted chaff and straw were swept away, or gathered and added to the mud used to make bricks, to make them stronger.
Winnowing was the stage where workers used wooden scoops to throw ears in the air. The wind carried off the chaff, leaving the heavier seeds to fall to the ground. This action was repeated until the undesired materials were sifted out. Grain waste was mixed with manure or other organic substances to produce brick-shaped dung toaves that could be easily burned. A standardized brick size enabled Egyptians to mass produce this byproduct, and use it as a commodity.
Transporting large amounts of grain required ships equipped to carry heavy loads. These goods were moved during the Nile's flooding season, when the river was deep enough for large ships. The transports stopped at checkpoints to accommodate customs and police controls, as well as for technical requirements and weather conditions.
Having reached Alexandria's inner harbor, the wheat was unloaded under the supervision of a civil servant in charge of wheat management. Portions were distributed to Alexandria's city market, and the remaining stockpile was either exported or stored in warehouses.
Grain storage facilities were located across all of Egypt. Temples and institutions had large silos, while individual houses had storage sheds. In some houses, arched cellars were built into the foundations. These watertight chambers were accessible from the ground floor, through a trapdoor. Royal granaries acted as the storehouse and distribution centers, and managed state payments to civil servants, soldiers and the police. Though plastered on the inside, silos weren't completely sealed and so remained susceptible to mice infestations.
When the grain was ready for processing, it was poured into bowis and pounded into a coarse flour. That flour was then passed through a sieve to make it a finer quality, and further ground between stones. Ancient Egyptians did not stock flour. Instead, fresh grain was portioned out each time to produce flour as it was needed.
The sieves used by Ancient Egyptians were unable to filter out sand and stones. Grit often passed into the flour, causing long-term tooth abrasions among all classes of Egyptians.
Learn about the various domesticated animals of ancient Egypt.
Agriculture and domesticated livestock were introduced 6000 years ago. Archaeologists have found traces of cattle, donkeys, pigs and dogs. Dromedary are thought to have been introduced during the Persian invasion.
Pets were deeply cherished in ancient Egypt. Many illustrations of children often include a pet in the depiction.
One of ancient Egypt's most iconic animals, the cat, wasn't adopted into their daily Life until the Middle Kingdom. Since they were so highly capable of killing snakes and rodents, cats were present throughout every period. However, they only became pets sometime during the Middle Kingdom. Prince Thutmose, son of Amenhotep III, had his cat Ta-miu laid to rest in its own sarcophagi.
The earliest reference to dogs dates back to 5000 BCE. They were popular pets, as they helped hunters and protected herds. They were closely linked to Anubis, the jackal-headed god. Baboons, monkeys and even falcons were tamed as pets. Each was mummified and buried with as much ceremony as any family member.
Learn about the balance of science and magic that was ancient Egyptian medicine.
Evidence of advanced medical procedures have been found on mummies, and ancient Egyptians left detailed medical writings, from diagnosis to follow-up treatment.
One of the oldest known surgical studies is the Edwin Smith Papyrus. It's one of the first documents in history that notes an association between the integrity of the brain and cognitive functions, including cases of ocular complications and paralysis following head trauma.
Vinegar-treated marble stone from Memphis was used as an anaesthetic.Another similar document, the Ebers Medical Papyrus is over 20 meters long and 30 centimeters wide. It details treatments of forty-eight surgical cases and contains 877 paragraphs describing various diseases. Alongside accurate and factual scientific approaches, the papyrus has more than 700 magic formulas and incantations to ward off demons and disease. This demonstrates how ancient Egyptians believed in a harmonious balance between religion and science.
Remedies were considered as medicine, and carried by doctors and priests. Village doctors often had another job, alongside their medical duties and the preparation of medicines. A cure for blindness was made of fermented honey, ochre and kohl. The science behind it was that honey functioned as an antiseptic and antibacterial, while ochre would reduce the swelling. All of their knowledge did not always suffice. Ramses II died of an infection caused by an abscessed tooth.
Learn about the uses of leather and linen in ancient Egypt.
Tanning, a process which dates from prehistoric times, was present although not highly valued in Egypt due to the heat.
Leather was reserved mainly for things such as sandals, leather bags, dagger sheaths, quivers, and other similar items.
Leopard hides, unlike regular leather, were highly valued and usually worn by priests.Valued for its coolness and freshness in hot weather, linen was the fiber most commontly used for fabrics and textiles. It was produced from flax, which was plentiful in Egypt. Fibers were usually dyed before weaving. While color was used in the production of textiles, dyes weren't commonly used for clothing and most Egyptians wore white. The color represented spiritual purity, a goal to reach for every day of one's mortal life.
Various shades were achieved using woad, a dye produced from the leaves of Isatis Tinctoria. The plant was cultivated for this purpose within the Nile Delta, and allowed for the creation of various colors. For example, different maceration times of the leaves would result in colors ranging from red to green, while adding in limestone shifted it to blue. During the Greco-Roman period other ingredients were found, resulting in a wider range of colors.
(Behind the Scenes) This area's style is strongly influenced by the dye baths and tanneries of modern day Fes, in Morocco. This helped Ubisoft envision what such locations might have been like in ancient Egypt. While this tannery is within the city walls, back then they were often found outside the city boundaries. The tanner's trade was considered off-putting by the Greeks, as all these operations resulted in noxious smells.
Learn about ancient Egyptian fashions.
Learning what life was like for ancient Egyptians presents many differences, and yet also, surprising similarities to how people might live today. Understanding the daily lives of regular citizens so many thousands of years ago is, ultimately, what connects us as human beings.
Jewelry was a popular item among ancient Egyptians of all social standing. Both men and women wore earrings, rings and bracelets. Status determined how much jewelry a person wore, and what it was made of. Common folk wore pearl necklaces, simple bracelets and leather bangles. Brightly colored earthenware and glass paste were a favorite enhancement.
The jewelry of the elite was made from gold, silver and other precious stones. Because gold never lost its shine, it was considered akin to the flesh of the gods. Wide jeweled collars were a favorite. Made with rews of beads formed into patterns of animals or flowers, the soft chiming sounds they made were thought to appease the gods.
Though idealized, tomb paintings are a catalogue of the changing fashions of ancient Egypt from the Old to the New Kingdom. Egyptians took appearance and cleanliness very seriously and were diligent about their fashion, hair and jewelry as well as their grooming habits.
The fabric of ancient Egyptian clothing was almost entirely made from various grades of linen. Linen was commont!y white, draped over the body and cinched at the waist, though some garments were sewn or tailored. Wealthy men wore long tunics, loincloths or kilts, while poor men only wore loincloths. Women wore long dresses, with differences residing in the quality of the fabric depending on social status. Egyptians commonly went barefoot, but could also wear sandals made from papyrus fiber or leather.
Cosmetics, including concoctions to prevent body odor and bad breath, were an integral part of everyday life for Egyptians. Used by both men and women, cosmetics were used as moisturizing ointments and sun protection as much as for beautification. Red ochre, a natural clay, was the most readily available cosmetic to tint lips and cheeks. Henna was used on nails and Lips, and as hair coloring. It was also favored by richer women to decorate their palms and the soles of their feet.
Egyptians believed kohl had magical powers, wearing it as black eyeliner to protect their eyes from the sun and to prevent eye infections from particles in the flooded Nile river. A special green kohl, made from ground malachite, was worn for ceremonies and religious rituals.
Women and teenage girls wore their hair long, and often braided. Wealthier women included carved combs or hairpins. The length of men's hair rarely dropped past the shoulders. They were mostly clean-shaven during the Dynastic Period, a trend began by the elite and soon adopted by the general populace. Queen Hatshepsut donned an artificial beard when she became pharaoh.
Wigs were very popular. Used for special occasions, or to conceal grey hair or baldness, they were fastened in place with beeswax. The most expensive wigs, were made from human hair and reserved for royalty. Other wigs were composed of linen, wool or animal hair.
Prepubescent children generally had their heads shaved. Young girls kept some strands intact, while young boys had a braid worn on the side.
Learn about the daily life of artisans in ancient Egypt.
It was under the watchful eye of Ptah of Memphis, the god of craft and architecture, that ancient Egyptians developed the unique rendition of the world they lived in.
However, it is vital to understand that their view of art, and those who created it, was likely very dissimilar to the modern concept of the word.
Instead of artists, the creative culture had skilled and respected artisans. The most significant categories of specialties for crafters were drawing, painting, sculpture and metalworking.Ancient Egyptian craftspeople created both art and a wide variety of mundane, everyday tools. Every item created had a specific purpose and was produced by anonymous artisans who worked alone or with a team. Most crafts such as pottery and metalworking were utilized for everyday items. Luxury goods and artwork illustrations served temple rituals, and were not meant for public display. Artisans rarely signed their names to the work, though they were clearly aware that they possessed a unique skill and talent for the task.
Art in all of its forms has offered not only a practical insight into the way ancient Egyptians lived, but in how they viewed the world and their place in it. The balance of order and chaos was crucial in both the physical and the metaphysical universes. As a result, their art appears to follow a strict set of stylistic conventions that supported this worldview. From households and palaces to temples and tombs, pottery, papyrus and textile items were essential to the everyday life of ancient Egyptians.
In ancient Egyptian culture drawing was used as ilustration, such as seen in the Book of the Dead. It was also the first step in the creation of a relief, painting, or statue. Two-dimensional representations were concerned with order and form, and were intended to honor gods and promote the transition of the soul to the afterlife.
Stylistically, Egyptians were concerned with the depiction of the human form's inner self. As such, artistic representations were not concerned with realism, but rather with idealized youth, and perfectly harmonious visuals.
An exception to this were scenes depicting hunting and battle, where the environment and enemies moved in lively, even chaotic ways. Animals and foes were depicted piled up as if describing chaos, with Egyptians standing in solemn, disciplined poses, bringing order to the scene.
Reliefs could be either in high relief, or low relief. Either method required a surface suited to the desired technique. Preparation of the surfaces differed depending on the quality of the rock. A quarried block only needed a simple smoothing. Rough-cut rock monuments such as those found in tombs, required more work. Often the surface was coated in plaster before being sculpted.
For reliefs, preliminary sketches were drawn in red, then framed with a red grid to position the elements of the scenes. Corrected sketches were in black and once approved, the scene was ready to be carved. This method likely explains the name given to relief-makers: the one who draws the outlines.
Statues were believed to be vessels for the souls of the deceased, or deities. That is why a sculptor was called “the one who makes it live”. This divine duty earned them the utmost respect. As with a relief, creation of a sculpture began with a drawing. Most statues were made of quarried blocks of stone, primarily limestone, though sometimes harder stones such as quartzite were also used.
In ancient Egypt, the profession of crafter was organized and relied on a specific hierarchy. Most artisans depended on an institution to provide them with raw materials. There were three working levels for craftsmanship: domestic, large estates and within palace and temple workshops. Some royal workshops, at their largest, covered an area of about 2.8 square kilometers in size.
At the domestic Level, most Egyptians were craftspeople to a greater or lesser extent. The ability to repair tools was a daily necessity. Crafted everyday items could also be bartered for at the local market. Artisans with skills but lacking in resources worked at large estates, where the elite provided them with space to work and raw materials. The most skilled artisans were employed in royal or temple projects, and benefited from a special status. They were provided with good work spaces, and considered to be highly skilled.
An ancient text known as the Satires of Trades has a number of descriptive summaries that offer teasing glimpses into how artisans were perceived.
A coppersmith was said to stink and have fingers that resembled crocodile droppings, while potters were said to be like those who lived in bogs.
This view was likely exaggerated in order to highlight the most enviable position of all: that of the scribe.Located near the Valley of the Kings, Deir El-Medina was a settlement created by order of the king to honor the most skilled artisans. lts name translates as "the monastery of the city.” Allocated a house on the initiative of the king, these craftsfolk were regarded with respect, and referred to as the royal artisans. Those who lived there worked on the tombs in the Valley of the Kings, and its surrounding temples.
Archaeologists believe the site was home to skilled and respected artisans for over 400 years. It is considered one of the most important discoveries relating to Egyptian daily lite. While much of the focus of Egyptian archaeology was on its kings and queens, it wasn't until the excavation of Deir El-Medina that Egyptologists were given a valuable window into the community life of ancient Egyptian artisans.
Learn about the pottery and its various uses in ancient Egypt.
Excavations all over Egypt have uncovered enormous quantities of pottery vessels of all shapes and sizes.
The production of pottery was mainly confined to the outskirts of settlements due to the materials required, and to keep the kiln smoke away from inhabited spaces.
The function of the product determined the selection of the raw material, its treatment, its form as well as the finishing of the surface.Pottery was essential to ancient Egyptians' daily lives. It was used in all aspects of life, from the storage of grains and liquids, to containers within the tombs of necropolises. The most common pottery was made from Nile silt that resulted in a reddish-brown clay. Limestone clay, which made for more attractive pottery, was only found in Upper Egypt.
Early pots were made from pinched or coiled clay. Chopped straw, ashes and other minerals were added, and the mixture was then smoothed and decorated before being put in the oven. Pots were fired in bonfires, or enclosed within a brick kiln.
The potter's wheel was utilized during the Old Kingdom. Pottery became smoother and more polished, similar to river stones. it was decorated primarily in red pigment, with the black color achieved by exposing it to smoke. Pottery workshops were attached to palaces or temples, and around the late period specialized workshops began to appear.
Quartzite particles, which created the rich blue or green glazing, became common during the New Kingdom. Mediterranean motifs and tin-based glazing came with the Greco-Roman era.
Potsherds could be found anywhere and were the most common canvas for writing or drawing, in comparison to the more expensive papyrus sheets. Named after their Greek description, Ostraca contained daily life records, letters or could be drawn upon. Artists drew sketches for temples and tombs or simply for leisure.
Learn about the family life and homes of ancient Egyptians.
In pre-Greco-Roman culture, women were considered equal to men in many matters.
They owned property, testified in court, could divorce and inherit. Until the Greeks and Romans restricted their rights, Egyptian women could take over their deceased husband's trade.
Marriage contracts included mentions of allowances and items of value brought to the marriage by the woman, which would forever belong to her.Certain professions were open only to women, such as weaving or professional mourning, while others were available to both genders, including working as servants for the rich households. Social status did have an impact, though; the higher in status, the easier it was to obtain education, and access different professions.
Homes were generally composed of three rooms. First there was the entrance, furnished with a small bench of brick, probably intended for a statue and protective divinity. Then there was the ceremonial room, meant to receive guests. The last room was either a bedroom or kitchen. Furniture consisted of basic chairs, chests and storage. Tables were not used for family dinners. Instead each individual had a small table of their own.
Marriages were a social contract rather than a religious construct. Family was vitally important to ancient Egyptians, and children were considered a blessing from the gods. The father, mother and their children were the nucleus of the family, and cohabitation sometimes extended to mothers-in-law, sisters, aunts and sisters-in-law.
Status and wealth played a large role in the style and size of ancient Egyptian homes. Commoners' houses were built with sunbaked mud-bricks. Wealthier homes were often painted in white, and decorated with various motifs.
Town officials and the rich lived in mansions with numerous rooms that were luxuriously decorated. Only temples and tombs, meant to last for all eternity, were built with stone.
Funeral stone inscriptions focused on the main member of a household. Encircling this person would then be a spouse, parents and children, possibly even siblings. These stones were so structured because there were no surnames in ancient Egyptian culture. Parents and children were a sort of family tree, which allowed for the identification of the deceased.
Learn about the production steps of brewing beer and bread making, and their importance in ancient Egyptians' lives.
While the Mesopotamians invented beer, including using a straw to avoid the sediments and herbs, Ancient Egyptians perfected the brewing method.
Egyptian beer's quality was determined by alcohol strength, color and flavor.
During the Pharaonic era, beer was the most commontly used and important alcoholic beverage. The state and temples used it, along with bread, as payment to workers and it was included on the Lists of food offerings to the gods and the deceased.Beer was the popular drink of ceremonies and festivals. The Festival of Drunkenness was even dedicated to it. Considered to be quite nutritional, beer was also significant in the day-to-day lives of ancient Egyptians. Egyptian adults and children consumed beer with all of their meals, and medical texts include hundreds of remedies that contain beer. It remained the most popular alcoholic beverage until the Roman era.
Recipes for beer varied over time, and depended on the quality of the materials. Bakers and brewers typically worked alongside one another at the same workshop or house. Many families often produced the quantity appropriate to their own consumption, with better quality beers produced for festivals and other special occasions. The most basic recipe used malted cereal as the main ingredient. Fruit such as dates were added along with honey and spices.
Once baked, bread would be crumbled into the brew to start the fermentation process. Adding grain enzymes would break down the starches, turning them into sugar and creating a thick mash.
Once ready, the bread and grain mixture was compressed, and then strained through a sieve with water into the mix of malt beer. Once fermented, the beer mash was transferred to large containers and again compressed, by foot or with pestles.
Once smooth, the beer was stored in pottery jars and sealed with a clay stopper. It probably couldn't be kept for long and likely had a thick, pasty appearance and texture. Very little was wasted. Leftover grains were reused to make sourdough bread, or combined with the next batch of beer.
While there are many ancient accounts for making bread, most of the knowledge known about ancient Egyptian brewing comes from an account by the alchemist Zosimos, over 300 years after Cleopatra's reign. More recently, Dr. Delwen Samuel, an archaeobotanist, has proposed alternate antique techniques to brew beer. However, experts are unable to replicate an authentic beer since not all of the techniques and ingredients used by ancient Egyptians are known yet.
Food was prepared on the floor until the Middle Kingdom, when cooking benches were introduced.
The introduction of durum wheat improved bread quality, meaning that the upper and middle classes ate better.
The poor, however, still made do with a diet consisting of a gruel made of vegetables, softened bread or barley.Dough was kneaded by hand or foot and when sufficiently blended, additional items were added such as fruits, nuts, honey and spices. To leaven the bread they added sourdough or leaven from beer brewing. Ovens were circular or beehive shaped and made with clay or brick. If there was no oven at all, a bread maker used the hot sand to bake flat bread, a technique stillin use by some Berbers today.
(Behind the Scenes) Ancient Egyptians always had to fight off the omnipresent sand particles that were blown towards them. Despite their best efforts, sand regularly made its way into their food. Additionally, particles from the grain-grinding stone tools and ovens they used also contributed to attrition and prematurely worn teeth. The team tried to portray this through toothache animations and commoners sweeping sand off.
Learn about the origin, production and storage of wine in ancient Egypt.
When the god Horus lost his eye in a war with Set, the ancient Egyptians believe the eye turned into a vine, and the vine's tears became wine.
Early texts dating back to 3150 BCE contain the hieroglyph for wine.
Regarded as extremely valuable, wine was highly sought after by the elite. It was also an essential part of many religious ceremonies.A millennia-old tradition, grape cultivation and wine production was regimented in the way typical of ancient Egyptian bureaucracy. Egyptians kept careful records of winemakers, which they clearly identified on labels. Every land owner with a modicum of self-respect usually kept a vineyard. This held particularly true in the regions of the Faiyum and the Nile Delta.
Documentation shows that only certain craftsfolk were allowed to provide the containers required to store and transport wine. That and rigorous quality control checks established for every step of wine production shows that ancient Egypttians knew that the quality and longevity of wine could easily be affected by any number of variables, which they paid careful attention to.
Egyptians had different kinds of wines, most of which ranged in quality from good to very good. The sweet shedeh, to which honey had been added. The soft nedjem, obtained by drying the grapes in the sun. The maa, reserved for religious cerimonies. And finally there was the paour, the mediocre-rated wine, resulting from the second pressing of grapes and reserved for a less discerning palate.
Learn about the cultivation and use of oil in ancient Egypt.
(Behind the Scenes)
Castor, sesame and moringa were the source of the most common oils in Ancient Egypt.
Oil was used for various purposes: cosmetics, medical treatments, nutrition, perfume, athletics, and rituals, to name a few.
The team decided to use oil as an explosive to add more gameplay opportunities for the player.Ancient Egyptians originally used castor oil in wick lamps, but also for cosmetics, such as facial and hair treatments. There is mention in some papyrus of castor oil being prescribed to treat constipation, and help pregnant women. Castor beans were found in ancient Egyptian tombs as early as 4000 BCE. Castor oil was made by pressing the beans from the plant of the same name.
Olive trees were present though scarce in ancient Egypt's earty history, and olives were mostly imported from Syria and Palestine. Their use and cultivation remained uncommon untilthe mass arrival of Greek settlers during the reign of the Ptolemies, when demand increased sharply. Olive trees were normally found in the region of the Faiyum and the lands surrounding Alexandria.
Learn about the military equipment typical of Rome's armies.
The strength of Rome was directly dependent on its military supremacy, and fundamentally militaristic society.
Regular citizens, comprised mostly of farmers and herders, joined to protect their land and families.
In return for their service, members of this civic army were allowed to vote.
Trained to be highly disciplined and obedient to superior officers, citizen-soldiers developed a deep sense of loyalty to their city.
The quality of the armor of a Roman foot soldier was intrinsically linked to his social status and wealth. Chainmail was the most commontly used type of armor. Scale armor, made famous in today's media, came into use after Caesar's time.
Foot soldiers carried large and oblong shields, while the cavalry used smaller ones of Greek origin.
Soldiers were expected to carry their own kit, including the tools required for the construction of forts and tents.
Roman soldiers used the same types of weapons. The stomach and face were the most targeted parts of the body. As such, a legionary was equipped with two close-combat weapons: a dagger and a short sword known as a gladius.
One of the most ingenicus Roman weapons was the javelin. Its pyramid-shaped tip pierced the body, while its iron shank was designed to break upon impact, stopping the enemy from throwing it back.
During their conquests the Romans regularly transformed enemy technologies to add to their own formidable arsenal.
After capturing a Carthaginian vessel, the Romans adopted its better features and constructed a superior fleet of ships.
Adapting heavy artillery designs from Greek modeis aided the Romans in building catapults and ballistae. The latter became an iconic symbol of Roman warfare.
Learn about the structure and operation of Roman forts.
The size of a Roman military camp, known as a castrum, varied significantly depending on how many soldiers it needed to accommodate. However, they all shared common characteristics in design and construction, such as this fort before you, located in Cape Chersonesos.
Rectangular in shape, the forts were heavily fortified by ramparts and a ditch system. The walls were reinforced with parapets, essentially an extension at the roofline which allowed a protective barrier for patrolling soldiers. Depending on the availability of materials, some forts were built with stone, timbers, stacked turf and, particularly in the eastern part of the Empire, baked brick.
Access doors on all four sides were each flanked by guard towers. The commanding officer was positioned in the middle of the camp, giving him a clear view of the troops and the main gate.
Along with sleeping barracks for the soldiers, the fort also had a granary that was expected to hold rations for a year or longer. To ensure the health of the soldiers, every camp was equipped with medical staff and a hospital. A clean water supply with conduits for a bathhouse and latrines was included in the construction of every fort.
Learn about the fortifications discovered in Cyrenaica, and their purpose.
Cyrenaica was a Libyan region under Roman control, gifted to Rome by one of Cleopatra's ancestors.
The remains and foundations of ancient fortifications were discovered in the 19th century in the south-west of Cyrenaica, as well as a Roman garrison dating back to the first century CE.
Evidence shows that these forts were of Libyan origin, rebuilt and modified by Roman engineers when Cyrenaica was part of the Empire.
(Behind the Scenes) Stone was the most commontly used material to build forts in Egypt and Cyrenaica. Though no real proof of a fortress similar to the one before you has been uncovered in that region, the team chose to add it as a worthy and awe-inspiring end of game challenge for the player.
(Behind the Scenes)
The forts of Cyrenaica were intended to prevent invaders from gaining access to the main route that lead to the country's five most important cities. These forts were built close to coastal plains and deserts for added defense.
Three of these cities were recreated by the team: Balagrae, Apollonia and Cyrene.
Had it existed, the fort before you would have protected the road leading to Balagrae.
Other than reference to an attack around 404 CE and a military reorganization by Emperor Justinian during the 6th century CE, we still know little of the Roman military presence in Cyrenaica.
Learn about the aqueducts and water management in Cyrenaica.
Water management was taken seriously by the Romans. Cyrenaica benefited greatly from Roman administration, with the construction of aqueducts and canals.
The source of water varied depending on the location.
Many aqueducts were built at the foot of the mountains, offering greater flow from the melting snow.
The ability to transport water over a greater distance increased agricultural production.
Some aqueducts were reported to be over 7 kilometers in length.
Where the Greeks of Libya originally focused mainly on olive trees and figs, which required less water, the advent of Roman aqueducts allowed for a far greater crop diversity. Every farm's water use was carefully scheduled.
The engineering methods used to create aqueducts were constantly reviewed, with a clear focus on exploiting the local environment. Materials, water usage, cleaning regulations and a deep understanding of how to exploit gravity itself were all important concerns.
Several fortresses were built to protect the aqueducts, basins and cisterns.
Additional water was collected with wells and cisterns, but aqueducts were the main supply of fresh water.
The water was distributed based on the collective needs of the city, before the private needs of an individual.
Almost all aqueducts ended in a fountain where the water circulated to clean the streets, and supply bathhouses and latrines, thus improving the cleanliness of Cyrenaica's cities.
Learn about crucifixion, the most severe form of Roman capital punishment.
In terms of the severity of Roman justice, crucifixion was at the top of the list of corporal punishment, followed by death by fire and decapitation. The upper class considered crucifixion unworthy of their position. Those lucky enough to have Roman citizenship were also exempt from such treatment.
Easily accessible, crucifixions were popular entertainment among the citizenry.
Unlike throwing victims to wild animals, which required an arena, crucifixions did not require any particular setting.
Those subjected to crucifixion were almost always slaves, traitors and lower class citizens.
Roman deserters were crucified because the betrayal of the soldiers was perceived as endangering the lives of Roman citizens.
In 71 BCE, a major slave uprising in Italia was repressed by the Roman army.
This resulted in the crucifixion of 6000 men including their leader, a slave and former gladiator known as Spartacus.
| Image | Name | Description |
|---|---|---|
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Bayek of Siwa | Medjay. Husband to Aya of Alexandria. |
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Aya of Alexandria | Trained as a medjay. Wife to Bayek of Siwa. |
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Julius Caesar | Roman politician and general. |
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Cleopatra VII Philopator | Descendant of Alexander the Great's general, Ptolemy I Soter. Queen of Egypt. |
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William Miles | Modern day mentor. Father of Desmond Miles. |
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Layla Hassan | Technical engineer. Former employee of Abstergo Industries. |
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Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator | Brother-husband of Cleopatra VII Philopator. Pharaoh of Egypt. |
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Khemu of Siwa | Son of Aya and Bayek. |
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Shadya of Euhemeria | Egyptian. Daughter to Hotephres and Khenut. |
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Reda the Merchant | Egyptian. Nomadic merchant. |
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Hasina of Yamu | Daughter of Menehet, an old friend of Bayek. |
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Actor | One of the famed actors of ancient Egypt, in costume. |
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Egyptian Woman | Wearing clothing typical of the common Egyptian folk of the era. |
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Egyptian Nobleman | Wearing clothing typical of the nobility of Ancient Egypt. |
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Egyptian Noblewoman | Wearing clothing typical of the nobility of Ancient Egypt. |
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Roman Soldier | Wearing clothing typical of Roman soldiers of the era. |
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Greek Nobleman | Wearing clothing typical of the Greek nobility of the era. |
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Greek Noblewoman | Wearing clothing typical of the Greek nobility of the era. |
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Greek Man | Wearing clothing typical of the common Greek folk of the era. |
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Greek Woman | Wearing clothing typical of the common Greek folk of the era. |
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Ptolemaic Soldier | Wearing clothing typical of Egyptian soldiers of the era. |
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Bayek with Egyptian Hedj | Wearing hedj clothing, a more distinguished though still practical outfit. Hedj means "white". |
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Bayek with Egyptian Irtyu | Wearing irtyu clothing, favored by the nobles. Irtyu means "blue". |
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Bayek with Egyptian Narok | Wearing the robe of an elder Maasai warrior. |
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Bayek as a Persian Commander | Purple is the color of leaders, feared by their enemies. |
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