Discovery Sites: Elis

Alkibiades at OlympiaBurial and PollutionCerberosCult PersonnelElis Coinage and BannerFortsHeroic CultsKladeosKronos

Marble bust of Alkibiades (450-404 BCE), Roman copy of a Greek original / 1st. cent. CE (Roman period)

Athletes were primarily from the upper class. They had to be rich to afford the expenses of training and their participation in the Games. Alkibiades, an aristocrat from an eminent family, was one of these very wealthy athletes.

His preference was for horse races—these events were reserved for the wealthiest participants. A good illustration of his financial power was during the Olympic Games of 416 BCE. He participated with a whopping seven chariots in the quadriga race, and won first, second, and fourth place.

He was the first to ever enroll this many chariots in one race, and in the context of the Peloponnesian War, this was a demonstration that Athens was still powerful. Alkibiades increased that impression with a magnificent feast, and even used official Athenian gold and silver plates for the occasion.

Woman performing maintenance on the family grave and giving offerings to the dead. Scene from an attic white-ground lekythos / 460 BCE (Classical Greece)

Giving a proper funeral to the dead was considered one of the most important gestures in a person's life. It was believed that the soul left the body upon death, and if not properly buried, the soul wouldn't find peace in the underworld. Burial therefore had a spiritual purpose, but also a practical one in minimizing the festering of decaying bodies.

This pollution of decay and the impiety of leaving the bodies without burial was a key explanation for the widespread practice of allowing defeated enemies to collect their dead after battle.

Herakles bringing Cerberus to Eurystheas, scene from a black-figure hydria / 525 BCE (Archaic Greece)

The twelfth and final labor of Herakles was the capture of Cerberos, the three-headed hound protecting the entrance to the underworld.

Herakles first visited Eleusis and participated in the Eleusinian Mysteries to prepare himself for the descent. The entrance was believed to be in Cape Tenaron, at the far end of Lakonia.

Hades agreed to give Cerberos to Herakles, but only if he managed to subdue the hound without any weapons. Herakles was successful in his task.

When Herakles brought Cerberos to Eurystheas, Eurystheas begged him to return the beast to the underworld, then released Herakles from any future labors.

Red-figure oinochoe with sacrifice scene / 430-420 BCE (Classical Greece)

The cult personnel of Olympia was made up of priests who fulfilled different sacred purposes.

Theêkoloi were responsible for the general organization of the cult, and performed sacrifices every month. They burned incense mixed with grain kneaded in honey on the site's different altars, and poured libations of wine.

Two soothsayers fulfilled the divining role previously he'd by Olympia's Oracle of Zeus, and four spondophoroi worked as libation bearers.

Meanwhile, exegetes were in charge of explaining Olympia's rituals to foreigners who came to the sanctuary to sacrifice. There was also a mageiros, who was something of a butcher and cook. The mageiros killed the animal being sacrificed, cut it, and cooked it so it could be served at a later banquet. The very first Olympic winner, Koroibos of Elis, was a mageiros.

Zeus' thunderbolt, reverse type of a stater of Elis struck for Olympia / 416 BCE (Classical Greece)

Elis is most famous for its sanctuary of Olympia where the Olympics were held. The main divinity of the sanctuary was Zeus; its main temple was dedicated to him, and housed the famous gold and ivory statue of Zeus made by Phidias.

Zeus was known as the king of gods and god of thunder. One of his attributes was the thunderbolt, which was given to him by the Cyclopes.

The coinage of Elis is associated with Olympia, and Zeus is often depicted on the coins. They sometimes feature a head of Zeus, but he's also commonly represented by his thunderbolt—which served as the model for the region's banner—or his signifying animal, the eagle.

Inspired by The Art of Assassin's Creed Odyssey, by Kate Lewis, with courtesy from Titan Books.

(Behind the scenes)

Hilltop forts formed the main line of defense against the invading armies. They are built of stone packed around wooden frames as demonstrated in the fort at the bottom of the page, created by Michael Guimont. It's up to the Hero to infiltrate these to bring them down from the inside, allowing the army to advance, as shown in concept art by Caroline Soucy (far right). But these are not simple structures, as Benjamin Hall explains, "Forts are some of the most complex challenges design wise. These locations need to offer something different for the player from both a visual and gameplay point of view."

Herakles stealing the Delphic tripod, scene from a black-figure oinochoe / 6th cent. BCE (Archaic Greece)

Ancient Greek heroes were viewed as intermediates between gods and men. Consequently, hero-cults were a distinctive feature of Greek religion.

Most heroes originated from heroic epics, such as Pelops in Olympia, but this quality was not always necessary. For example, Erechtheus of Athens had a local hero-cult without ties to an epic. On some occasions, extraordinary humans—such as the founders of cities—could also become the objects of a cult, like Brasidas in Amphipolis.

Hero-shrines, or heroöns, were often constructed around the hero's real for suspected) tombs.

One exception amongst hero-cults was the cult of Herakles. Herakles was considered as much as god as hero, and his cult was widespread. There were many large sanctuaries dedicated to the demigod, such as the Herakleion in Thasos, where he was viewed as one of the city's protectors.

Alpheios River, tributary of the Kladeos, at Ancient Olympia / Unknown date (Modern period)

The Kladeos river borders the western side of Olympia. Its name comes from the river-god Kladeos, who according to Pausanias shared an altar with Demeter behind the sanctuary's temple of Hera.

Originally, Olympia's gymnasion and baths were erected along the river's banks, but part of the gymnasion was destroyed when the river changed course in the 4th century CE.

The river's new trajectory—along with flooding from the Alpheios river in the Middle Ages—buried Olympia in approximately four meters of silt, and the site was only rediscovered in the 19th century.

Red-figure pelike, attributed to the Nausicaa painter, with a scene of Rhea giving the stone infant to Kronos / 460-450 BCE (Classical Greece)

The site of Olympia is dominated on the northern side by the Hill of Kronos. This Titan, who was the father of Zeus and the Olympians, was worshipped on the top of the hill.

Prophecy told that Kronos would be dethroned by one of his children. Because of this, he devoured the children he had with Rhea as soon as they were born. But when Zeus was born, Rhea fooled Kronos by hiding Zeus in Krete and replacing him with a stone wrapped in clothes.

Once he had grown up, Zeus managed to free his brothers and sisters and make them his allies. The following war between Olympians and Titans for the supremacy of the universe is called the Titanomachy. Zeus also freed the Cyclopes who created the thunderbolt for him.

Zeus and his allies won the war and imprisoned the Titans in Tartaros. The Titan Atlas received another punishment as he was ordered to hold up the sky. Zeus became king of the gods, and thus began the age of the Olympians.

Legendary VictorsModern Olympic FlameOrating ContestsOrganizationPreparationThe Augean StablesThe Bouleuterion of Olympia

Discobolos, Roman copy of a Greek bronze original from the 5th cent. BCE attributed to Myron / 1st-2nd cent. CE (Roman period)

Some athletes achieved a level of fame that bordered on mythical. The wrestler Milon of Kroton was one of them. In the 5th century BCE, he won events in every Panhellenic Game, granting him the rare privilege of the title of periodonikes. He won six victories in Olympia, in addition to several other titles in the Panhellenic Games of Delphi, Nemea, and Isthmos.

He was appointed general by his city, and led an army during the war between Kroton and Sybaris. In the battle that led to the destruction of Sybaris, Milon dressed like Herakles, wearing a lion-skin and carrying a club.

Milon's strength was legendary. He is reported to have carried his own bronze statue to its place in Olympia. However, he was not invincible. When he participated in his seventh Olympiad, he competed against a fellow from Kroton in the final. Before combat started, the opponent bowed as a sign of respect, then managed to defeat Milon. Even so, it is Milon's name that history remembers.

Lampadedromia scene from a red-figure oinochoe / 4th cent. BCE (Classical Greece)

The modern concept of lighting of the Olympic flame—a practice started during the 1936 Games in Berlin—has its roots in antiquity.

The carrying of the torch was at least partially inspired by the lampadedromia, a relay-race that required runners to reach the finish line while holding a still-burning torch.

However, although the lampadedromia was held at many religious festivals and sporting events, it was not an event in the ancient Olympic Games.

Instead, the most important flame in Olympia was the sacred Fire of Hestia, which was used to light the sanctuary's altars during the festival.

Portraits of philosophes / 509-27 CE (Roman Republic period)

Though not part of the official competition, the first day of the Olympic festival featured recitals and teachings from poets and philosophers.

Because Olympia was a public space, it provided these orators an excellent opportunity to earn the ear of wealthy aristocrats with the goal of turning them into future patrons.

Oral tradition was so important in ancient Greece that some Panhellenic festivals—like the Pythian Games in Delphi—included orating contests as part of the official program.

Agonothetes crowning an athlete, scene from a red-figure cup / 490-450 BCE (Classical Greece)

Until up to 584 – 580 BCE, the Olympic Games were organized by the Oxylides, an aristocratic family from the city of Elis.

Over time, however, the family seemingly died out, and the responsibility of organizing the Games passed on to other members of the Elaian aristocracy who were chosen randomly by lot.

The first organizers of the games were originally called agonothetai—literally "those who held the games"—but their name was eventually changed to hellanodikai.

File:File:DTAG - Attic Red-Figure Cup.jpg

Attic red-figure cup depicting an athlete preparing himself by pouring oil from an aryballos into his left hand. Behind him is a discus and two javelins / 510 BCE (Archaic Greece)

Oiling up their bodies was very important for athletes, as they trained and competed completely naked. This process served to soften the muscles, offered skin protection against the sun, and helped to regulate body temperature to avoid dehydration.

Athletes stripped and then covered their bodies first with oil, and then with fine sand.

The use of oil on the bodies of athletes may have also had an aesthetic purpose. For wrestlers, it was alse a functional choice; when oiled bodies got covered in dust, it increased the grip on their opponent.

Herakles and the Augean stables, scene from a bronze plaquette from Galeazzo Mondella (1467-1528) / 16th cent. CE (Renaissance period)

The fifth labor of Herakles consisted of cleaning the stables of Augeas, king of Elis. This was a rather humiliating task, since the cattle that lived in the stables were immortal. Not only that, but they were more than one thousand in number, and produced an enormous amount of dung. The stables had been filthy for thirty years, which made the task nearly impossible.

In this case, Herakles used his brain instead of this brawn. He redirected the rivers Alpheus in the Peloponnese and Pineios in Thessaly to the site. The water went through the stables and thoroughly cleaned them.

Unlike the other labors, it appears that Herakles was paid for the task. He asked for one tenth of the cattle if he managed to clean the stables in one day. However, he killed Augeas when the king didn't honor the deal, and gave the kingdom to Phyleas, Augeas's son.

Papyrus Didot / 323-31 BCE (Hellenistic Greece)

The Bouleuterion of Olympia was one of the first buildings constructed in the site.

The council of Olympia met in the Bouleuterion to discuss matters regarding the sanctuary. They appointed priests, arbitrated conflicts between athletes and hellanodikai (judges), and decided which victors to erect statues for, as well as where to put them.

The Bouleuterion also housed archives of records from previous Olympiads, in addition to the statue of Zeus Horkios, in front of which athletes and trainers swore their Olympic oath.

The Erymanthian BoarThe Foundations and Origins of the SanctuaryThe GymnasionThe Olympic HeritageWomen Victors

Herakles bringing back the Erymanthian boar he captured to Eurystheas, who is so afraid that he hides in a large pythos. Scene from a black-figure amphora / 525-500 BCE (Archaic Greece)

The fourth labor of Herakles was considered very dangerous. Eurystheas asked Herakles to bring to him the boar that lived on the mountain Eurymantos. Centaurs, half-horses and half-men renowned for being wise, lived on the same mountain. It was the famous centaur Chiron—who later became the tutor of Achilles—who advised Herakles on how to catch the boar.

Herakles drove the boar into the snow, captured it, and carried it back to Eurystheas, who was so afraid of the animal that he hid himself inside a pithos (container).

Red-figure lekythos with scene of Pelops escaping with Hippodameia while Myrtilos fallls from the chariot / 4th cent. BCE (Classical Greece)

The sanctuary is very ancient. Its use goes back to the third millennium BCE. At first, it was only a sacred forest. From about 1000 BCE onward, a cult of Zeus developed on the site of Olympia.

The traditional date of the first Olympic festival is 776 BCE, which is also the date of the first recorded winner of the Games: Koroibos of Elis, who won the stadion race.

The Olympic Games have their origins in ritual funeral games. Funeral games were held to honor the deceased, and might have celebrated civic heroes or private individuals.

In "The Iliad", Homer related that Achilles held games for his friend Patroklos who died in the Trojan War. It is the most ancient mention of this ritual, but they are attested to well into the Hellenistic period.

Brasidas, the Spartan general, died in the battle of Amphipolis during the Peloponnesian War. He was honored as the new founder of the city, and funeral games were organized and became an annual event.

Gymansion scene with athletes and trainers from a red-figure cup / 5th cent. BCE (Classical Greece)

The main buildings where athletes trained were the gymnasion and the palaistra.

In the gymnasion, athletes trained for races and pentathlon events. In the palaistra, they trained for wrestling and boxing. Wrestlers and boxers could train in the Korykeion room, where a suspended leather bag full of sand (korykos) served as a sort of punching bag.

All athletes competed and trained nude. The reason for the introduction of athletic nudity is not immediately clear. The etymology of gymnasion pointed to nudity, as the Greek word gymnos means "nude". According to Thucydides, this innovation came from Sparta. He says that Lakedaimonians were the first to practice sports naked. Tradition says that Acanthus of Sparta, who won the diaulos and the dolichos races in the Olympic Games of 720 BCE, would have been the first to do this.

But Pausanias had another version of the story. He tells that the first to run naked in Olympia was Orsippus of Megaris in 720 BCE. He supposedly did this believing that nudity would help him run faster.

Portrait of Baron Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937), founder of the modern Olympics / 1915

The modern Olympics were inspired by the ancient Games of Olympia. A French nobleman, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, was convinced of the parallel importance of the development of mind and body, and he saw this ideal in ancient Greek culture. He had the idea to revive the Games, and started to promote this notion. At this time, excavations had begun at the original site of Olympia. The ancient site was rediscovered in 1766 by Richard Chandler, an English antiquarian, but the first excavation was carried out in 1829.

The excavation reports inspired de Coubertin, who became obsessed with the athletic ideal of Olympia, which he thought would inspire competitiveness and team spirit amongst nations.

The first modern games were held in 1896 in Athens.

Dekadrachm of Syracuse signed by artist Kimon and depicting a quadriga on reverse / 405-367 BCE (Classical Greece)

Although women were not allowed to compete in the Olympic Games, it was still possible for them to win the equestrian events. This is because horse and chariot races awarded not the jockeys or chariot drivers, but the owner of the horses.

The first woman to participate in (and win) one of these races was the Spartan princess Kyniska. She won events both in 396 BCE, and in the following Olympiad, and her victories made her world-famous. She even erected a statue of herself and her horses in Olympia. After her death, she was made a hero in Sparta, and a shrine was builtin her honor.

Following Kyniska, other women like Euryleonis of Sparta; Berenike, queen of Egypt; Belistiche of Makedonia; and Timareta of Elis also went on to win equestrian events.