|[[File:ACOD Cult of Kosmos Member render.png|thumb|100px|center]]
![[Cult of Kosmos]] Member
![[Cult of Kosmos]] Member
|Fictional | Operates secretly from upper echelons of society. Wears modified Greek theater mask.
|Fictional | Operates secretly from upper echelons of society. Wears modified Greek theater mask.
Revision as of 05:53, 11 November 2019
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Discovery Tour: Ancient Greece is an educational mode for Assassin's Creed: Odyssey. Released on 10 September 2019, the mode was available as a free update for players who own the game, and also as a standalone purchase on Uplay. It includes 30 tours covering 5 different themes (Philosophy, Architecture, Daily Life, War, and Mythology) lead by 5 different tour guides (Aspasia, Barnabas, Markos, Herodotos and Leonidas I of Sparta). The tours can be experienced using 36 unique avatars and 15 mounts, accessible by progressing through Discovery Tour objectives, and each one has a interactive quiz at its end.[1]
Aspasia:Greetings, wanderer. It is my pleasure to introduce you to a unique tour – One that won't take you to impressive landmarks or famous battle sites, but through a typical Athenian home.
("Who are you?")
Aspasia:My name is Aspasia. Though I am not original from Athens, I have climbed to the top of its social ladder using my wit and intellect. I've even earned the love of Perikles, one of the most powerful men in the city. The mind truly is a beautiful thing.
("What do you think of this place?")
Aspasia:If Olympos is Zeus' sanctuary, then my house is my own. It is a place where I can shelter myself from the noise and stress of city life.
("I would like to begin the tour.")
Aspasia:For an outgoing people like the Greeks, the house was a refuge of privacy. Inside, they could escape from the constant demands of civic life to enjoy the simple pleasures of family life. Look for me when you are done, and we can discuss the things you've seen. Farewell for now.
Narration:The house, or oikos, was a residence for Greek families and their slaves. Contrary to modern houses, which look outward, the Greek household was built to look inward on a courtyard. The courtyard was the house's central fixture. It was the building's main source of daylight, and also the location of religious altars dedicated to worship. The building itself was made up of familiar accommodations, including bedrooms, storage rooms, a kitchen, and a living room. Women were generally in charge of tending to the home, which in Greece was called oikonomia – a term that inspired the modern word "economy".
Learn more:Certain rooms in Greek households were reserved for exclusively for women and female slaves. These rooms were known as gynaikonitis, or gynaikon. The gynaikon were entirely separated from the men's section of the home – the andron – by a strong door, and were frequently situated in the house's upper stories.
Men often held drinking parties called symposia in their section of the house. Women, meanwhile, kept to their section to pursue activities like tending to their appearance, looking after children, spinning and weaving, and playing musical instruments.
Narration:A pasta was a corridor that connected a house's courtyard to its residential section. Archaeological evidence from the city of Olynthos reveals that pastas were added to Greek home design in the 5th century BCE.
Learn more:Greek houses were built on foundations of stone with mud bricks and woodwork. Their floors were packed mud – with the exception of the andron, which had a tiled floor – and their roofs were compiled of tiles.
In cities, houses were positioned next to one another, and usually had a room or shop that opened up onto the street. Windows were normally only found on the first floor, but rooms were arranged so that air could circulate through them from the open courtyard.
The houses were heated with braziers of charcoal, which also helped light surrounding rooms. Furniture, meanwhile, was very simple, and consisted of couches, chairs, folding stools, tables, blankets, and cushions. Archaeological evidence also suggests that many other tools and objects were also kept in the home, including vases, sieves, cauldrons, and basins.
Narration:Greeks had no qualms about combining their work and their private lives, and many of them worked from home. Artisans like blacksmiths, sculptors, and potters often had workshops in their houses. Some even operated small stores to sell their work. Similarly, doctors were known to treat patients in special offices located in their homes. Women also worked in the house, and were responsible for making textiles, as well as producing clothes and supervising weaving, which was carried out by slaves. If a household was wealthy enough, they could even produce a surplus of textiles to sell in times of financial difficulty.
Learn more:Athenians supported themselves by carrying out a wide array of commercial and industrial activities. Most of the time, there was no distinction between where people worked and where they lived.
For example, in Aristophanes' comedy "Lysistrata", the character of the tavern keeper is shown serving wine in his own residence. Similarly, according to Demosthenes, the general Konon ran an entire business in his house.
Teachers could even have schools inside their homes, such as the father of Aischines, who taught an elementary school in his house.
Narration:The inner courtyard was the nexus of the house. Functionally, it allowed air to circulate, and also provided access to most of the rooms. It also sometimes housed a well or a cistern that collected rainwater. In the center of the courtyard was an altar to Zeus Herkeios, who served as the protector of the household. Women would often use the space to sew and cook, while children used it as a play area. Furthermore, if the family had pets or animals, the courtyard was where they were allowed to run free.
Learn more:Based on scenes of household life depicted on ancient vases, Greek children had many different ways to entertainment themselves. Artistic representations show them doing everything from spinning tops, to riding seesaw, to playing knucklebones.
Children also played with small figurines, animals, wheeled horses, carts, and dolls. Terracotta or plaster copies of birds and other animals were also common toys.
Numerous dolls, such as a tiny figurine of a woman, have survived to this day. The dolls were designed with articulated joints in their arms and legs, which allowed children to manipulate them into a variety of positions.
Narration:The bathroom was located in the back of the house. Much like today, it was used for cleansing and washing, although the Greeks used chamber pots instead of toilets. Most bathrooms had a louterion that could be filled with water for washing. Mirrors, razors, strigils, and sponges could also be found in the bathroom, along with small vases called aryballoi which were usually filled with perfume or oil.
Learn more:The Greeks viewed hair as a symbol of life and strength. Originally, hair loss signified old age of disease, and the shortening or shaving of hair symbolized a loss of freedom. During the Archaic period, men who had long hair were associated with the aristocracy.
In the 5th century BCE, however, it became fashionable men to wear their hair short, usually in curls or short strands. Women, meanwhile, had long hair held together by nets, pins, or bands.
The Classic period saw the appearance of even more looks, like the lampadion hairstyle, which involved bounding hair upward in a way that was reminiscent of a burning flame. Similarly there was also the "melon style" bun, in which hair was tightened to form a braided crown, and a Greek bun with a high knot.
Narration:Greek homes had kitchens where the family's meals were prepared. The Greeks did not often eat meat, except during special occasions like banquets or after sacrifices. They had a mainly grain-based diet, eating staples such as bread, porridge, or a barley cake called maza. They also occasionally ate poultry, fish, and other sea food, as well as fruits, vegetables, goat milk and cheese, and olive oil. Food was cooked on a tripod, or sometimes in a klibanos, which was a sort of mobile oven. Other cooking implements included braziers, mortars and pestles, a spit to hold food over a fire, platters, and frying pans. The family also used the kitchen to store food in containers called pithoi.
Learn more:According to Hippokrates, some Greeks ate only one meal a day, while others ate two. The main meal was called the deipnon, and was eaten in the evening, while the second possible meal was called ariston, and was normally eaten around noon.
The deipnon was made up of three parts: a cereal staple called sitos, a main dish called opson, and potos – otherwise known as wine. The opson usually consisted of meat or fish, while the wine was served with desserts like dried fruits, nuts, and cakes.
The Greek diet was on the Mediterranean triad: grains, grapes, and olives.
Narration:Symposia were major social institutions in Greece. They were drinking parties held exclusively for men. The party took place in the men's section of the house, the andron, where residents and guests reclined on special couches called klinai. Food was served on low tables set in front of the couches, while wine was placed in a krater in the center of the room. During a symposium, men drank, sang, had philosophical discussions, and played games like kottabos. Musicians, dancers, and even courtesans were often welcomed to attend as well. However, wives and daughters were always excluded.Learn more:The most popular game at symposia was the kottabos. The game consisted of flicking an almost-empty wine cup to project the remainder of the wine at a specific target. The target was generally a terracotta vessel either floating in a bowl of water or balanced on a stand, and the objective of the game was to use the wine dregs to sink the vessel or knock it down.Another popular symposium game involved the singing of skolia. Skolia were drinking songs sung by symposiasts in turns. Participants would pass around a sprig of laurel or myrtle. Whoever held the sprig would start singing, then pass it suddenly to another person, who would do their best to continue the song.
IMAGE DESCRIPTION: Red-figure cup with a scene of a symposium
Narration:The pyrgos, or upper storeys, was the women's quarter of the house, where they could pursue their activities and observe the city without been seen themselves. The rooftops were also used in a special rite called the Adonia, a private celebration held in honor of Adonis, which was reserved for women. At the beginning of spring, women filled terracotta pots with soil and lettuce seeds, then climbed a ladder to place the pots on the rooftop. These pots served as the women's very own "Gardens of Adonis".
Learn more:The Adonia festival was linked closesly to the myth of Adonis, a mortal who was beloved by the goddess Aprodite. After incurring Artemis' wrath, Adonis was killed by a boar, and from his spilled blood bloomed flowers.
The commemoration of Adonis' tragic death was central to the Adonia celebration. The participating women danced, sang, and ritually mourned Adonis by setting pots of plants on their rooftops that quickly germinated and withered. Because of this, the phrase "Gardens of Adonis" was often used proverbally by Greeks to describle something trivial and wasteful.
After the rooftop ceremony, the women descended into the streets for a funeral procession. When the procession was over, they buried small statues of the gods, then celebrated by drinking wine and playing games.
Aspasia:I hope now you have a better understanding of the routines and home life of the Greek people. What would you like to do next?
("I'm ready for a quiz.")
Aspasia:Then let's start with a simple question. Which group of people celebrated the Adonia?
Aspasia:Correct! The Adonia was celebrated by women of all stations. Let's move on to the next question.
Aspasia:Which of the following was known as the "protector of the household"?
Aspasia:Yes! Zeus Herkeios protected the household, and an altar to the god usually stood in the center of the house's courtyard. On to the final question.
Aspasia:Which of the following was not located in the bathroom?
Aspasia:The louterion was a water basin that was located in the bathroom. Try a different answer.
Aspasia:Correct! The klibanos was a mobile oven usually found in the kitchen.
Aspasia:I'm afraid mirrors were quite common in bathrooms. Keep trying.
Aspasia:It seems you really know your way around Greek homes. Well done, wanderer.
("Take me to the next suggested tour.")
Aspasia:As you wish. Come with me.
("Take me to a random tour.")
([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")
Aspasia:Farewell, wanderer, and thank you for visiting my city.
Wine
Visit the island of Thasos, and learn about ancient winemaking techniques.
Markos:Ah, my friend! How fortuitous to run into you in this most intoxicating place. I'd offer you a drink, but for some reason the workers won't let me borrow any of their wine. Cheapskates.
("Who are you?")
Markos:Why, I'm Markos, of course! Only one of the most successful merchants in all of Greece. You really haven't heard of me? My name is known from Kephallonia to Kos! If you've ever paid money for something, I probably received a percentage. But enough about me. Let's go back to what you're doing here.
("What do you think of this place?")
Markos:You know, I once started my own wine business on Kos. It hit a bit of a snag when my investors, three brothers calling themselves "The Cerberos", suddenly lost faith in me. But after they had a tragic run-in with a bloodthirstymisthios, I was able to land on my feet. From then on, the streets of Kos overflowed with wine, and my purse overflowed with drachmae! Very sad about the Cerberos, though. Couldn't have happened to nicer people.
("Let's begin the tour.")
Markos:As you can probably tell by all the grapes, this is one of Greece's many vineyards. Wine was an essential part of Greek culture, and this tour will take you through how it was made. In addition to being delicious, not to mention lucrative, wine was an important part of Greek economy. I promise I'll meet you at the end of your visit, my friend. See you soon!
Narration:Winemaking dates back to the 4th or 3rd millennium BCE. It became widespread in Greece during the Bronze Age, and within centuries the Greeks had refined it further. The first step in the process was always harvesting, where grapes grown on rows of vines were collected by vineyard workers. According to Homer, harvesting was often accompanied by music to give it a more festive atmosphere. Ancient Greek wine mainly came in three different varieties: austeros, glukazon and autokratos. It could be flavoured with spices, herbs, resin, and even perfume. It was also much stronger than modern wine, with an alcohol percentage of approximately sixteen percent. Because of this, the drink was mixed with water to make it more palatable.
Learn more:The god Dionysos was believed to have introduced wine to mortals. As a result, there were many celebrations and festivals dedicated to Dionysos, including the Athesteria, an Athenian festival that marked the broaching of new wine from the previous autumn.
The Athesteria took place over 3 days. The first day was called Pithoigia ("jar opening"). As its name implied, it was dedicated to opening new wine jars and offering libations to Dionysos.
The second day, Choes (jugs), included jovial events like drinking contests, but also a solemn ceremony where the wife of the archon would be wedded to Dionysos.
The third day was called Chytroi (pots), in reference to the pots that contained the day's meal.
The Athesteria was mostly lighthearted, but it had a dark side as well. The Choes in particular was viewed as a day of ill omen, where ghosts from the underworld would appear to haunt the living. On this day, people allegedly chewed leaves of whitethorn and smeared tar on their doors to protect themselves from the wrath of the dead.
Narration:Grapes were dried to maximize the wine's sweetness and prevent it from turning into vinegar. In most vineyards, the dying process involved laying the grapes out on the ground under the heat of the sun – then covering them at night to prevent them from accumulating dew. According to Hesiod's poem Work and Days, the ideal time to dry grapes was "ten days and ten nights". When they were finally completely dry, the grapes were collected in jars, just as they are today.
Learn more:The Greeks used different types of grapes to produce different kinds of wine. According to Julius Pollux in his Onomastikon, there were 28 varieties of grapes, and they were often named after their place of origin or the method of their production.
The Byblia variety of grapes produced a wine called the Byblinos. The Byblinos enjoyed a great reputation among wine lovers, and even appears in Euripides' tragedy Ion during a scene set a luxurious symposium.
The dark-colored Pramnia grape variety, meanwhile, was used for the Pramnios wine, an appreciated black vintage produced in Icaria and Smyrna. The Pramnios was prestigious enough to have been drunk by the heroes of The Iliad and The Odyssey.
On the other end of the spectrum were the Psythias or Psythia, white grapes from Ionia that produced a very sweet wine known today as Liasto.
Narration:The Greeks had many methods for crushing the harvested grapes. The most common technique was to use a lenos, a large "treading vat" where workers stomped on grapes with their feet. Alternatively, the Greeks sometimes crushed the grapes by hand using a strainer, mashed them with a mortar and pestle, or squeezed them using a tool called a sack press.Learn more:Wine had many uses in Greek culture.The liquid was very important for symposia, communal drinking parties reserved exclusively for men. During a symposium, a krater (mixing bowl) at the center of the room was used to mix water and wine together. Once diluted, it was shared amongst the party's guests, who drank it from individual cups.Wine played a part in libations to the gods and at funerals. Furthermore, it could be mixed with certain aphrodisiac or hypnotic properties to induce feelings like arousal or sleepiness.Surprisingly, wine was also used as a medical treatment for the sick, and women suffering gyneological problems were sometimes prescribed the drink. Dioskorides even described two types of wine that could supposedly abort fetuses.
IMAGE DESCRIPTION: Trapetum from a farm in Argilos
Narration:After the grapes were pressed, the resulting juice was poured into large containers called pithoi, where it fermented. Once fully fermented, the wine was filtered through an ethmos or sack, which separated it from the residual yeast called "lees". The wine was then placed in a special storage room. The room was dry, and the wine pithoi within were half-buried in the ground to ensure they maintained a consistent of fifteen degrees Celsius. These measures ensured the wine wouldn't lose any of its quality before being shipped to market.
Learn more:Wine from Thasos was considered to be one of the highest quality Greek wines, and was conquently produced a large scale to be exported to foreign markets. The Hippokratic treatiseOn Disease even listed Thasian wine among refreshing beverages that aided patients from hot flushes.
In Athens and the rest of Greece, Thasian wine was at the high end of the quality spectrum. Archeological evidence of Thasian amphoras has turned up in places like Athens, Amphipolis, Pella, Egypt, and other areas around the Black Sea. Many of these amphoras were labeled with the name of the people involved in the production of the container, such as potters, workshop owners, or inspectors dedicated to ensuring the quality of the jars. These stamps also helped authenticate the origin of the wine.
Narration:When the wine was ready to ship, it was poured into storage containers called amphoras. These were smaller than pithoi, which made them easier to ship and display in crowded marketplaces. However, that doesn't mean transporting wine was always a safe endeavor. Sometimes, ships carrying amphoras as cargo would be wrecked before making it to their destination, losing hundreds of bottles of wine to the sea.Learn more:Athens was home to many taverns, and the establisments' managers were often mocked by Aristophanes the Comic poet. The taverns were called kapeleion or taverna, and sold wine, vinegar, and sometimes sweets and bar snacks.After a wine amphora was opened, the liquid was poured into a krater (mixing bowl) to decant. It could also be cooled by pouring it into a wine-cooler called a psykter first, then placing the psykter into a krater filled with cold water. When it was ready to be served, the wine was transferred to jugs called oenochoai, and was drunk in individual cups like kylikes or kantharoi.In Athens, taverns flourished in the southeast corner of the agora, according to the numerous amphoras, drinking cups, mixing bowls, and cookware that have been found in the area. Similar archeological evidence has also been found in the south corner of Korinthsagora, suggesting there were taverns there as well.
IMAGE DESCRIPTION: Wine stall scene from a black-figure pelike
Markos:Ah, my friend! Are you drunk with knowledge? I hope you enjoyed yourself, learning about all the picking, stomping, and bottling that goes into making Greece's favorite beverage. Maybe if my customers understood how hard winemaking was, they'd agree more with my perfectly reasonable prices. But let's talk about something else, yes? What else can I do for you?
("I'm ready for the quiz.")
Markos:You want you intelligence tested? Well let me tell you, friend, no one is more qualified for the task than me. Let's get started. What container was used to ship wine to market?
Markos:No, pithoi were big containers where the juice fermented into wine. But I'm fond of second, third, even fourth chances, so try another answer!
Markos:Yes! Wine was stored in amphoras during its long journey to market. Here's another question!
Markos:An ethmos was actually a strainer, not a container. Although both words end in "ainer", so I understand the confusion. Try again.
Markos:The lenos was the vat where workers pressed the grapes. Keep trying, though!
Markos:What container was used to ship wine to market?
Markos:Which of the following wasn't a type of wine variety?
Markos:No, austeros was a dry kind of wine. Try again.
Markos:No, autokratos was wine of the medium-sweet variety. But don't give up yet!
Markos:Correct! Thasos was an island famous for its vineyards, not a specific type of wine. Just one more question to go, my friend.
Markos: Glukazon was the sweetest type of wine, and my personal favorite, but it is not the correct answer. Try another one.
Markos:Which of the following wasn't a type of wine variety?
Markos:Which part of the winemaking process created the grape juice necessary for wine?
Markos:
Markos:That's the one! The harvested grapes were pressed in a lenos, often by the feet of vineyard workers! Just try not to think about that last part whenever you have a cup of wine.
Markos:
Markos:
Markos:Which part of the winemaking process created the grape juice necessary for wine?
Markos:You really know your wine! You're as good with the facts as I am with money, and that's really saying something.
("Take on the next suggested tour.")
("Take me on a random tour.")
([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")
Markos:If you say so, my friend! I hope we see each other again soon.
The Life of a Greek Woman
("Who are you?")
("What do you think of this place?")
("Let's begin the tour.")
("I'm ready for the quiz.")
("Take on the next suggested tour.")
("Take me on a random tour.")
([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")
Bronze in Argos
("Who are you?")
("What do you think of this place?")
("Let's begin the tour.")
("I'm ready for the quiz.")
("Take on the next suggested tour.")
("Take me on a random tour.")
([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")
Perfume
("Who are you?")
("What do you think of this place?")
("Let's begin the tour.")
("I'm ready for the quiz.")
("Take on the next suggested tour.")
("Take me on a random tour.")
([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")
The Laurion Silver Mines
("Who are you?")
("What do you think of this place?")
("Let's begin the tour.")
("I'm ready for the quiz.")
("Take on the next suggested tour.")
("Take me on a random tour.")
([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")
Wheat and Agriculture
("Who are you?")
("What do you think of this place?")
("Let's begin the tour.")
("I'm ready for the quiz.")
("Take on the next suggested tour.")
("Take me on a random tour.")
([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")
Pottery in Athens
Aspasia: Hello, wanderer. May I introduce you to the Kerameikos, the kiln that warms all of Athens' pottery?
("Who are you?")
Aspasia: My name is Aspasia. Though I am not original from Athens, I have climbed to the top of its social ladder using my wit and intellect. I've even earned the love of Perikles, one of the most powerful men in the city. The mind truly is a beautiful thing.
("What do you think of this place?")
Aspasia: The art produced here is some of the most beautiful in the Greek world. I envy the potters' skill, though I’m not quite as envious of their clay-stained hands. It’s bad for the nails.
("I would like to begin the tour.")
Aspasia:...
Narrator: The Kerameikos was a large, sprawling area northwest of Athens's akropolis.
While part of it was used as a graveyard, it was also dedicated to the creation of pottery.
The Kerameikos was so significant to the art form that its name lives on in the word "ceramics".
Perhaps drawn by the river, potters moved into the area and formed their own bustling community.
It's believed that by the end of the 5th century BCE, hundreds of thousands of pottery vessels had been made in Athens, including everything from heavy, undecorated cooking pots, to delicates and beautiful containers reserved for the most precious oils.
Sadly, only around one percent of these works survive today, some only in small fragments.
Learn more: Unfortunately, no ancient manuals for making pottery have survived to the present day, and there is only limited visual and textual evidence to explain how ceramic works were created.
However, the vases themselves provide a few clues. Some pots were decorated with behind-the-scenes glimpses of potters and painters at work. These visual narratives, along with the texts of ancient authors, suggest that pottery-making was a family affair, with fathers teaching their sons the craft at a young age. One base even shows a woman working as a painter, which again suggests that pottery-making was a family business.
Aspasia: You've returned. As you can see pottery is...
("I'm ready for a quiz.")
Aspasia: Then let’s get right to it. Starting with an easy one.
What was responsible for the orange-red color of most Athenian vases?
("Paint.")
("Leaves.")
("Blood.")
("Iron.")
Aspasia: Correct! Athenian potters...
("Can you repeat the question?")
("Take me to the next suggested tour.")
("Take me to a random tour.")
([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")
Aspasia: Then we must part ways, at least for now. Farewell, wanderer.
Dyeing and Fashion
("Who are you?")
("What do you think of this place?")
("Let's begin the tour.")
("I'm ready for the quiz.")
("Take on the next suggested tour.")
("Take me on a random tour.")
([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")
Politics and Philosophy
Sparta Social Classes
Spartan Society
Helots
Fear and Revolts
Helot Soldiers
Perioikoi
Spartan Politics
Two Kings
Responsibilities
Kings and Religion
Ephors and Law
The Gerousia
The Spartan Assembly
Democracy in Athens
The Pnyx
The Democratic Process
Magistrates
Participation
Democracy as Heritage
School of Greece - Philosophy
Philosophy and Greece
Kynosarges
Teaching Values
Importance of Philosophy
Sokrates and the Sophists
Classical Philosophers
Art, Religion, and Myths
The Olympic Games
Day One
Day Two
Singing Praises
Pentathlon
Day Three
Day Four
Hellanodikai
Cheaters' Stella
Prytaneion
School of Greece - Music
Music
Musical Contest
The Odeon of Perikles
Musical Genres
Knossos
Herodotos:Welcome to Knossos, traveler, where the Minotaur once prowled.
("Who are you?")
("What do you think of this place?")
Herodotos:Some say if you listen closely, you can still hear echoes of the Minotaur's ferocious bellowing. Of course, it may only be a trick of the wind. Perhaps.
("Let's begin the tour.")
Herodotos:Knossos was the seat of the old Minoan civilization, where King Minos once supposedly ruled. These ruins have been the backdrop for many important events in both history and mythology. LOok for me when your visit is over, and we'll discuss what you've seen.
Narrator:The island of Krete was first settled around 8000 BCE. Over time, significant towns and maritime trade began to develop. Palaces were built, destroyed, and then rebuilt, culminating in what achaeologists call the Neopalatial period, which began around 1700 BCE. This period lasted for over three hundred years, and is considered the golden age of the Minoan civilization. The largest palace of this period was located in Knossos—and featured mazelike complexes of workshops, temples, courts, throne rooms, and living areas, as well as paved roads and advancing plumbing and draining. Trade and external relations were important to the Minoans, and their networks extended across the eastern Mediterranean. As a result, the people of Krete and the lands they traded with often influenced each other and exchanged ideas, usually through peaceful interactions instead of military conflict.
Learn more: Arthur John Evans was an achaeologist known for his excavations at Knossos from 1900–1931. He was so dedicated to his work at the site he missed his father's funeral to preside over the excavation of Minos' palace.
Arthur Evans named the Minoan civilization after King Minos, but it is unknown what the Minoans called themselves.
Narrator:The settlement of Knossos was established as early as the 7th millennium BCE. Today, one of the sites most notable landmarks in the palace ruins located on the Kephala hill. The ruins are split into two phases, the Old Palace, which has been poorly preserved, and the New Palace. The New Palace of Knossos had a surface area of approximately 13,000 square meters. Making it the largest Minoan palace. Its focal point was a central court which was probably used for ceremonial activities. The Minoan palace centers collapsed when Krete was overrun and conquered by a Mycenaean invasion from mainland Greece. However, the date of the final destruction of Knossos' palace is still unknown.
Learn more:
Arthur John Evans oversaw many architectural reconstructions at Knossos, with somewhat mixed results.
In the negative side, Evans' restoration at Knossos, with somewhat mixed results.
On the negative side, Evans' restoration of the Throne Room prioritized how it supposedly looked in the Late Bronze Age period, instead off representing the full spectrum of its history. Evans also overemphasized the Minoan identity of the site, leaving out the aspects of Mycenaean culture that influenced Knossos' art and architure.
On the positive side, the site's reconstruction helped save many parts of the site that would have otherwise been lost. Moreover, while the restoration of some art and architecture was inaccurate, it did help evoke the elegance and skill of Minoan architects and painters.
Narrator:During the New Palace phase, the group floor was dedicated to economic activities, and contained large storage rooms. The residential quarters—which notably had toilets—were located southeast of the Central Court, at the foot of the Grand Staircase. The palace was lavishly decorated with wall paintings depicting thing like bull-related sports and richly-deressed women. Large stone "horns of consecration", which were important Minoan religious symbols, hung prominetly in the West Court. Other notable parts of the palace include the Theatrical Area, which is believed to have served as a viewing space, the Tripartite Shrine, which was dedicated to the worship of an important Minoan deity historians refer to as the "Mother Goddess", and the Piano Nobile, a grand space located on the palace's second floor.
Learn more:
One fresco excavated from Knossos in 1914—"Ladies in Blue"—has been reproduced for New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art. The copy reproduces and embelishes fragments that were burned or roded on the original fresco.
Narrator:During his trips to Krete, archaeologist Arthur John Evans discovered several ancient tablets. They eventually led him to define the forms of Minoan writing known as Linear A and Linear B. The Minoans used these forms of writing for recording many things, including business transactions. For example, one clay tablet at the palace of Knossos was inscribed in Linear B script. The tablet detailed the transfer of coriander—often used in the perfume industry—between a man named Kyprios and another person named Twinon. The deciphering of tablets such as these has given historians great insight into many aspects of Minoan culture and society.
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During the Middle and Late Minoan period, Minoans buried their dead in a terracotta coffin known as a larnax.
Many larnakes were found burried in a cemetery to the north of the town that surrounded the palace at Knossos. The coffins were shapes like bathtubs or chests, and were often elaborately painted with scenes that were chosen for their funerary significance. They were also sometimes buried alongside valuable grave offerings.
It's possible the coffins had domestic uses as well, functioning as either bathtubes or storage chests.
Narrator:According to the myth, the half-man half-bull Minotaur was born after Queen Pasiphae slept with a bull sent by the gods as punishment upon her. This embarrassed King Minos, but he could not bring himself to kill the Minotaur. Instead, he hid the monster in a labyrinth constructed by Daidalos.
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Depictions of "bull-leaping" were prevalent throughout Minoan art, and bull-leaping scenes are believed to have decorated the walls above ceremonial bull-rings. However, the reasons for engaging in such an activity remain unknown. Mythical bulls like the Minotaur played important roles in Minoan iconography. This is likely due to cattle being a vital asset in the Kretan economy, especially during the Bronze Age, Bull and cattle are even mentioned in various Linear B documents.
Narrator:Daidalos was an important figure in Greek mythology. An ingenious inventor, he once became so jealous of his similarly-clever nephew that he threw him from the top of the Athenian Akropolis. As a consequence, Daidalos was banished from Athebs, though this did not prevent him from being able to get work. In Krete, he was hired by Queen Pasiphae to construct an artificial cow suit that would allow her to seduce a bull she was particularly taken with due to a curse from the Gods. Daidalos complied, and his invention helped facilitate the birth of the Minotaur. Afterwards, Minos conscripted Daidalos to build the Labyrinth, presumably as penance for his role in creating the Minotaur. But perhaps the most well-known story about Daidalos involves his son, Ikaros, who used wings built by his father and flew too close to the sun, thus plummeting into the sea.
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Much of the story of Daidalos as we known it comes from the Roman poet Ovid. While older versions of the story exist in ancient Greek sources, they wary wildly in their telling and often contradict each other when it comes to specific details.
Narrator:Some time after the birth of the Minotaur, King Minos' son Androgeos was killed in Athens by the same bull that impregnated his mother. And infuriated demanded that Athens send seven of their noblest men and seven of their most virtuous women to Knossos every year. After being carried to Krete aboard a ship with black sails, the men and women would then be cast into the Labyrinth to be eaten by the Minotaur.
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Athens' donating of youthful men and women to Krete may have been based on a real payment of tribute to the Aegean's dominant trading power in Bronze Age Greece. However, this is only a theory.
Narrator:One of the Athenians youths chosen to be imprisoned in the Labyrinth, Theseus, had enough of the morbid ritual. Before leaving Athens, he proclaimed he would kill the Minotaur, then return to his city on a ship flying while sails. Before entering the Labyrinth, Theseus met King Minos' daughter, Ariadne, who fell madly in love with him. Ariadne provided Theseus with a thread he could unravel to him find his way back out of the maze. Armed with this thread, Theseus entered the Labyrinth, killed the Minotaur, escaped the maze, and set sail for Athens with Ariadne by his side.
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After successfully killing the Minotaur, Theseus set sail for Athens with Ariadne, but stopped in Naxos for a long celebration. Due to the many hours of feasting and drinking, Ariadne fell asleep and forgot to return to Theseus' boat, which departed for Athens without her. In another version of the story, Theseus deliberately left Ariadne behind.
When Theseus realized what he'd done to Ariadne, he was so distraught that he forgot to change his ships' sails from black to white. When his father Aegeus saw the omnimous black sails on Theseus' ship, he presumed his son was dead and, fraught with grief, threw himself into the sea.
Herodotos:I see you've found your way through the maze of ruins. The Minoans played a large part in shaping Greek myths, but also in introducing influences from other places and cultures. Now, what else would you like to do?
("I'm ready for the quiz.")
("Take on the next suggested tour.")
("Take me on a random tour.")
([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")
Herodotos:Farewell, traveler. I hope you enjoyed exploring the ruins.
School of Greece - Theater
The Greek Theater
Sanctuary of Dionysos
Festivals
Dionysia and Drama Competitions
Actors
The Orchestra
The Theatron
Gods and Love
Akrokorinth
Gods, Love, and Seduction
Aphrodite
Battles and Wars
Spartan Education
Sparta
The Importance of Education
Statue of Leonidas
The First Stage of Education
Barracks
Syssition
Battle of Marathon
Battle Overview
Causes of the Conflict
The Greek Reaction
Arrival of the Persians
The Athenian Strategy
Combat
Heroic Exploits
The Aftermath
Consequences
Thermopylai
The Battle of Thermopylai
The Persians Arrive
First Encounters
Treachery
The Greek Army's Retreat
Final Moments
The Legacy of Thermopylai
The Glory of Sparta
Battle of Amphipolis
Amphipolis
The Triumph of Brasidas
The Shame of Thucydides
Eion Port
Kleon's Strategy
Brasidas' Defense
Kleon's Retreat
Unexpected Attack
The Fifty-Year Peace
The Battles of Pylos and Sphakteria
Context
Athenians Trapped
The Athenian Fleet Arrives
Spartans Trapped
Negotiations
Attack on Sphakteria
Consequences
Famous Cities
The Akropolis of Athens
Aspasia:Greetings, wanderer, and welcome to the Akropolis, the shining jewel of Athens.
("Who are you?")
Aspasia:My name is Aspasia. Though I am not original from Athens, I have climbed to the top of its social ladder using my wit and intellect. I've even earned the love of Perikles, one of the most powerful men in the city. The mind truly is a beautiful thing.
("What do you think of this place?")
Aspasia:Personally, I think the Akropolis is one of, if not the, greatest place in all of Greece. Though considering it was the project of my partner, Perikles, I may be a touch biased.
("I would like to begin the tour.")
Aspasia:The Akropolis of Athens is a bastion of art and culture worthy of the gods themselves. Within this citadel, you will find many important sacred buildings, as well as some of the most magnificent art in all of Greece. You are in for a very enlightening visit.l When you're done, come find me, and we can discuss the things you have seen. Farewell for now.
Narrator:The Akropolis has gone through many changes in its long history. It began as a simple rock, was settled as early as the Neolithic period, and then became a fortress in the Mycenaean period.
Stone buildings started appearing in the 7th century BCE, but the famous structures whose ruins remain visible today date mainly from a period of construction in the 5th century BCE.
The location of the Akropolis is closely tied with Athens' foundation myth. Supposedly, it was the site where Athena and Poseidon competed for the city's patronage. This connection gave the Akropolis a sacred aura, and it was considered the religious heart of the city.
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After the archaic buildings of the old Akropolis—most notably the temple of Athena Polias—were burned down in 480 BCE by Xerxes' Persian army, the great general and staresman Perikles resolved to transform the naturally imposing rock into a huge monument to Athens' political, military, and cultural greatness. Thus began the most ambitious building program the Greek world had even seen at the time.
Seven million drachmae were spent on the whole project, which has been deemed by UNESCO as "the supreme expression of the adaptaion of architecture to a natural site". The Parthenon alone cost 469 talents—nearly 3 million drachmae, and the equivalent of approximately 12 tons of silver.
To justify the massive cost, Perikles cited the need to immortalize Athens' greatness, but also called the attention to the jobs the project would create for hundreds of stone cutters, carpenters, metal workers, painters, and unskilled laborers, all of whom were greatful for the opportunity to make more money.
Narrator:The Temple of Athena Nike was built on the remains of old fortifications from the Mycenaean era. Worship at the temple can be traced back to the 6th century BCE, but the building itself was destroyed during the Greco-Persian Wars a century later. It was rebuilt during the Peloponnesian War. Given that the name Athena Nike roughly means "Athena of Victory", it was likely constructed in the hopes that Athens would win the war.
Unusually, the temple depicts historical scenes of battles against the Persians, instead of the more mythologically-inclined art of other Greek buildings.
The temple's priestess was chosen randomly among the Athenians, and received of fifty drachmae anually, along win skins and trophies from sacrificed animals.
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The area where the temple of Athena Nike was built offers a beautiful view of the southern shores of Attika, along with the ports of Piraeus and Phaleron.
This noteworthy feature—as well as the Mycenaean ruins nearby—were the basis for the assumption that Aigeus, the ninth king of the old Athenian dynasty, watched the sea from here in the hopes of seeing his son Theseus returning safe and sound from Krete.
Theseus, the most important Athenian mythological hero, had left for Krete under the guise of one of the youth send to feed the Minotaur. Theseus promised Aigeus that he would kill the monster and bring back the Athenian youth on a ship flying white sails, symbolizing victory and joy.
The hero slew the Minotaur and sailed home, but forgot to replace his ship's dark mourning sails with lighter ones. When Aigeus saw the dark sails, he assumed Theseus had died. Stricken with grief, the king threw himself off the steep bastion of the Akropolis, meeting his death on the ground below.
Narrator:The Akropolis was built up over a long period, due in no small part to its partial destruction during the Greco-Persian Wars. It was in the 5th century BCE, though, that the Akropolis received its most significant improvements. This period was an extremely prosperous time for Athens, both financially and culturally.
With a booming economy bolstered by trade and the Laurion silver mines, Perikles, the leader of Athens, financed a huge project to rebuild the citadel.
He enlisted the help of renowned artists like the sculptor Phidias, as well as the architects Iktinos and Kallikrates.
Together, they erected buildings like the Parthenon, and the Propylaea gateway. Perikles' goal was to make the Akropolis into a glorious monument to the gods, and to mortal Athenians.
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The history of the Akropolis did not end with the Periklean building program.
In antiquity, fires and invasions often imperiled or even destroyed parts of the Akropolis, forcing Athenians and foreign admirers of the site to restore, embellish, and protect the remnants of Perikles' achievements.
For example, a ceremonial entrance in front of the Propylaia was built by F. Septimius Marcellinus ca. 280 BCE, with stone quarried from nearby monuments which had recently been destroyed by a Germanic invasion. it is known as Beulé Gate, named after its modern excavator.
The Akropolis had many uses throughout history. Under Byzantine rule, it hosted pilgrims seeking to visit the Parthenon, which had been transformed into a church. After the Fourth Crusade, it housed a Roman Catholic cathedral, as well as the palace of the LatinDuke of Athens. In Ottoman times, it acted as a fortress for protecting mosques, living quarters, and the harem of the local governor.
It was only in the first half of the 19th century CE that the newly independent modern Greek state decided to revive the Akropolis' Classical ruins. The medieval and modern buildings were removed, and the site's restoration has been going on ever since.
Narrator:Behind the Propylaea was the giant bronze statue of Athena Promachos, or "Athena who fights on the front lines". That name was reflected in the spear and shield the statue held in its hands. It was erected in the mid 5th century BCE by the artist Phidas.
According to an inscription, it took nine years to make, and cost almost half a million drachmae. At approximately ten meters tall, the statue was apparently so large that Pausanias claimed its helmet and spear tip could be seen from the sea near Cape Sounion, sixty kilometers away.
The ornamentation of the statue's shield was engraved by the metalsmith Mys.
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Athena, who was miraculously born from Zeus' head, was one of the most important deities in the Greek Pantheon. In the Bronze Age, she was an Aegean goddess who protected lucrative palatial and household activities, such as wool processing.
Later on, she became the patron deity of many ancient Greek cities, with Athens being only the best known among them. However, she still kept her place as the protector of artisans, spinners, weavers, smith, and the like.
The goddess had numerous epithets reflecting specific attributes, including Athena Polias (the protector of the city), Athena Ergane (the protector of crafts), and Athena Promachos ("fighting in the first rank", which alluded to her worship as a martial deity).
She was also conceived as the goddess of wisdom, and her most famous symbol was the owl, which was often engraved on Athenian coins and painted on vases.
Narrator:The arrhephoroi were young girls between the ages of seven and eleven who were in charge of special rites. A list of four girls were drafted by the assembly of citizens, from which the high magistrate, the archon basileus, chose two to serve as arrhephoroi for the year.
The girls lived in a house on the Akropolis. They were in charge of carrying sacred objects, and weavubg the peplos of Athena.
The peplos was a sacred robe offered to Athena during Panathenaia, a festival held in her honor.
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The arrhephoroi were selected on the basis of noble birth, so only high status girls had the priviledge of serving Athena during the feasts of the Arrhephoria and the Panathenaia.
Pausanias wrote that two girls—whose designation meant "Bearers of Mysteries (Sacred Offerings)"—performed a special rite during the Arrhephoria. Their main duty was to descend from the Akropolis to a precinct of Aphrodite, carring sacred objects on their heads given to them by the priestess of Athena. Once at their destination, they left the objects and received something else in return. Neither the arrhephoroi nor the priestess knew what any of the objects were, as they were always covered.
The arrhephoroi's other duty was to asist the temple's priestess in the sacred act of weaving Athena's peplos (garment). This ritual took place over 9 months, before the garment was finally offered to Athena at the Panathenaia.
Employing young, inexperienced arrhephoroi guaranteed the purity of the sacred robe. It also gave the girls the chance to learn how to spin and weave, which were two most important tasks required of Greek women.
Narrator:The Erechtheion was an atypical temple. It was dedicated not only to Athens Polias, but also to Kekrops, the mythical founder of Athens, his son Erechtheos, and even Poseidon, the sea god who challenged Athena for possession of the city.
The temple was divided into sections. The eastern part housed a statue dedicated to Athena, while the western section jointy belonged to Poseidon and Erechtheos. Meanwhile, King Kekrop's grave was believed to be under the Karyatid Porch. Under the temple was a crypt that was said to contain the sacred snakes of Athena.
The snakes may have had a sweet tooth, because the prietesses of Athena allegedly fed them honey cakes.
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TBA
Narrator:The Parthenon is one of the most well-known buildings in the world, and an enduring symbol of Ancient Greek civilization. While it is located on the Akropolis, the building is nto a traditional temple. It was built by the scupltor Phidias and the architects Kallikrates and Iktinos as a great monument to the glory of the city of Athens.
That glory is evident in its many carvings. One of the most craved monuments in Greek architecture, the Parthenon's decorations depict several mythological scenes. These include the birth of Athena, her fight against Poseidon for the patronage of Athens, the god's battle with the giants and the procession of the Great Panathenaia.
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The Parthenon was built and decorated between 447 and 432 BCE, and the worship of Athena went on for nearly one millennium, although the building was affected by the destruction caused by Germanic invaders in the 3rd century CE.
In approximately 590 BCE, it was converted into a Christian Greek church dedicated to Maria Parthenos—the Virgin Mary, and the new protector of Athens. The church became the fourth most important pilgrimage destination in the Byzantine Empire, after Constantinople, Ephesus, and Thessalonica.
After the Latin soldiers of the Fourth Crusade captured Constantinople in 1204 CE, Athens became a Crusaderduchy for two and half centuries, and the Orthodox church became the Catholic Cathedral of Our Lady.
The Ottoman conquest of 1458 CE transformed the Parthenon once again: this time, it became an Islamic mosque.
Although refurbishments and addtions were made to the building throughout its many iterations, the continued Christian and Muslim activity within the Parthenon helped preserve the monument better than many other ancient structures.
Unfortunately, in 1687 CE, during the Venetian siege of the Ottoman fortress on the Akropolis, a cannon ball shot struck the Parthenon, which was being used to store gunpowder. The roof was blown apart, three walls were severly damaged, and several columns and metopes fell to the ground, as well as most of the sculptures on the pediments and the frieze.
Narrator:The Parthenon's inner chamber, or cella, contained a massive statue of Athena that was considered to be one of the sculptor Phidias' greatest masterpieces. The statue was chryselephantine, a combination of gold and ivory. To justify the steep cost of its construction, Perikles told Athenians that the statue was a gold reserve which could be disassembled in times of economic distress.
The cella also allegedly contained a pool whose main purpose was to control the room's humidity, which helped preserve the statue's ivory.
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TBA
Narrator:Athen's treasury was located in the Parthenon, where it was believed to be protected by Athena herself. The treasury contained objects of great value acquired from different conquests, as well as a mass of minted silver coins and various offerings to Athena.
Perikles also decided to move the entirety of the Delian League's treasure to the Parthenon in 454 BCE. This was a great testament to Athen's power over the rest of Greece. The riches were divded into two parts: the demosia, which belonged to the city, and the hiera chremata, which was dedicated to the goddess and only used for religious purposes.
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At the height of its power, Athens' two main sources of revenue were the silver mines of Laurion, and the contributions paid by the allied cities of the Delian League.
The Delian League began in 478 BCE as an alliance of around 150 Hellenic cities, all headed by Athens. Its aim was to free the Greek cities under Persian oppression. The allies, whose number eventually grow to 300 as a consequence of numerous victories, contributed troops and money, the later of which was stored in the sanctuary of Apollo at Delos, a small holy island in the Aegean.
After the Persians were defeated, the allies started to resent Athens and its constant demand for troops and money. Athens ruthlessly quelled every revolt, and transferred the allied treasury to the Akropolis, gradually transforming the League into its own empire.
In fact, part of Sparta's success during the Peloponnesian War was determined by their promise to give the Athenians "allies" their freedom back, which earned the city losts of support.
Aspasia:And what did you think of the Akropolis? It truly is quite something, isn't it? A sacred sanctuary and an architectural marvel, all in one. If you have any questions, don't hesitate to ask.
("I'm ready for a quiz.")
TBA
("Leave – That's all for now.")
TBA
In a city dominated with dedications to Athena, the Brauroneion stood out for its focus on Artemis Brauronia, the goddess who presided over girls from puberty to childbirth.
It's probably the sanctuary was built for a smaller branch of the main cult of Artemis Brauronia.
It consisted of a portico, and a wooden statue that was later replaced with a marble one carved by the famous sculptor Praxiteles.
In many ancient texts, the goddess Athena bears the attribute "Ergane", which refers to her patronage of craftsmen and artisans, and other crafts.
Athena Ergane was mainly associated with spinning and weaving. She protected women who produced textiles, and in return they offered her spindles, loom weights, raw wool, and textiles as dedications.
On ancient painted vases, Athena Ergane was often represented as either an artisan in a tool-filled workshop, or as an owl next to objects symbolizing certain crafts. For example, an owl next to a wool basket was sometimes stamped on loom weights used by weavers.
It is not clear if Athena Ergane had an actual cult, like Athena Polias, but it is evident that the goddess bearing this ephitet received dedications and offerings from all sorts of artisans. Moreover, the sacred peplos given to the goddess during the Panathenaia was woven under the auspices of Athena Ergane.
The Propylaia was the monumental gateway on the western side of the Akropolis. It was built between 437 and 432 BCE, under the supervision of either Phidias or Mnesikles, and was part of Perikles' plan to adorn the Akropolis with magnificent monuments. Although it was not seen as a military structure, the Propylaia was also used to restrict access to Athens' holiest area.
It was conceived as a spectacular construction of Pentelic white marble and Elusinian grey marble, and its design was meant to stylistically mirror the Parthenon.
The Propylaia's construction was suspended in 431 BCE due to the start of the Peloponnesian War, and was never resumed. This means that out of a very ambitious project, only the main building was finished. Nevertheless, with its five gates a ceiling painted with golden stars, it remained impressive. The gateway was also unique in that it mixed both Doric and Ionic columns, in addition to be reinforced with iron.
The northern wing of the western façade housed a 10.75m x 9 m ritual dining room known as the Pinakotheke. According to Pausanias, the Pinakotheke was famous in antiquity for its paintings of Greek battles.
After a baby was born, it was presented to the father, who would then decide its fate. If the child was a girl or showed signs of a disability, they were occasionally abandoned and left to die.
Wealthier families could hire caretakers or employ their slaves as nurses to look after their children. This was a necessary precaution, as children were very susceptible to diseases and illnesses.
Education in Greece was reserved for boys and young men. Rich families could hire tutors to teach their daughters skills like reading, but this was not the norm, and girls were mainly taught how to run the household.
Jason about the seize the Golden Fleece, stergo of the Argo to the right
Jason was the legendary Greek hero who led the Argonauts, a group of adventurers named after their ship, the Argo. Together, they set out to steal the magical Golden Fleece, and eventually succeeded with the help of a sorceress named Medea.
Jason married Medea, and the couple eventually settled in the city of Korinth. But the couple's happy ending was short-lived; when Jason met the king of Korinth's daughter, Glauke, he abandoned Medea to seek the princess' hand in marriage.
Enraged, Medea gifted Glauke a dress that was secretly poisoned. Upon wearing the dress, Glauke was burned alive.
The ending of the story varies. Either Medea's children were stoned to death as punishment for her murder of Glauke, or Medea herself killed her children as a way of getting revenge on Jason.
The legend of Medea was later told in a tragedy by the famous playwright Euripides.
Makedonia
Makedonia's banner features the head of a horse. In northern Greece—especially in Thessaly and Makedonia—horse breeding was an important activity and a major source of wealth.
When Makedonia increased its power under King Phillip II—the father of Alexander the Great—horses played a crucial role in the army. Companion cavalry, the elite cavalry of the Makedonians, has been regarded as the best of the ancient world.
The inspiration of the banner came from a coin from Pharsalos in Thessaly depicting an artistic-rendering of a horse's head. Horses are very common in iconography, especially in coinage.
The Peloponnesian War began over two main stories. One is the Athenians having entered into conflict with an ally of Sparta, the great city of Korinth, which had tried to take over one of Athens' allies, the city of Potidaia. The other is the so-called "Megarian decree" which was passed by Athens in order to forbid all trade between Magar and the Athenian empire.
As a result, the Spartans called for a great congress in Sparta where they conferred with their allies. The Megarians were pushing towards war, since they were greatly affected by the decree, and so were the Korinthians. The king of Sparta, Archidamos II, advised for a more cautious policy, trying to prevent the outbreak of the war, or at least to make sure that Sparta was better prepared to face the Athenians who ruled the seas in an open confrontation.
The war that would ensue pit two essentially different powers and styles of warfare against each other. Sparta and their allies were based mainly in the Peloponnese, and their force consisted especially of land armies of hoplites—the only maritime power of this League was Korinth. The Athenians, on the other hand, had become a maritime power during the struggle against Persia, and remained so in the aftermath.
Malis
Upon the arrival of the Persians, the terrified Delphians consulted the Oracle of Apollo. They were told to address their prayers to the winds, as they would be Greece's most powerful ally in the coming conflict; Xerxes campaign did indeed rely heavily on coordination between land and sea forces advancing in unison.
During the Battle of Thermopylai, a storm cost the Persian sea armada many of its ships—over four hundred vessels were destroyed. In calm weather, these ships would likely have forced the Greeks to fight in a tactical retreat, letting Xerxes land troops south of Leonidas' position and bypass Thermopylai entirely. The cooperation of the winds led the Athenians to later construct a temple in honor of Boreas, the wind god.
The Greeks had always distinguished Europe—where they had settled—from Asia. They reckoned it began with the far side of the Aegean Sea and extended well beyond to Persia and India. But, behond pure geography, the Persian invasion gave a political significance to the distinction between Asia and Europe.
Herodotos writes of two worlds: Asia, dominated by the Persian Empire, and Europe, by which he actually means the Greek world. This is particularly notable at the time of the passage of the Dardanelles by the Persian army.
While Greece is still a few hundreds of kilometera away, Herodotos quotes Xerxes as saying: "Let us enter into Europe after having prayed to the gods who reign over the land of the Persians". He passes radically from one world to another, from one civilization to the other. Texts describe Asia as a "barbarous country", but we mnust be careful that the word does not have the meaning of today; it simply means that the spoken language is incomprehensible to the Greeks, without implying a judgement of value.
In "The Iliad", Homer describes the struggles that broke out between friends and foes over who would lay claim to the remains of a fallen warrior. The death of Leonidas at Thermopylai prompted such a fight.
Herodotos, who knew "The Iliad" well, was no doubt aware that he was repeating a well-known trope. He says that two sons of Darius fell in fighting over Leonidas' corpse, and that a melee ensued between the Spartans and Persians. Leonidas' conduct at Thermopylai is comparable to the Homeric heroes of legend, as it's often suggested that this conflict is as important as the Trojan War itself.
The Greco-Persian Wars incited the Greek Herotodos from Asia Minor to write the first works of a new literary genre: history. At the beginning of his book, Herodotos writes, "Herodotos exposes here his research, so that what men have accomplished does not fade from memory, those great and wonderful exploits accomplished by both Barbarians and Greeks".
The word "research" was previously used only in medicine to describe the search for the causes of a disease. it then camew to designate a new intellectual construction, history, in the current sense of the word, highlighting the need for rigor and objectivity. Since the 5th century BCE, it's thanks to the Histories of Herodotos that we're able to understaqnd the deeds of Sparta at Thermopylai.
Xerxes went to spectacular lengths to ensure the passage of his armr from Asia Minor into Greece. For example, he made a bridge of boats to cross the straits of Dardanelles, twelve kilometers long. This bridge was barely finished when a storm destroyed it. Furious, Xerxes ordered that the sea be punished with three hundred lashes, and the chains be thrown to the bottom of the ocean to better restrain it.
Xerxes also dug a canal at the entrance of the eastern peninsula of Athos, which has a height of more than 2,000 meters, can prove extremely dangerous in the event of a storm, as shown by the catastrophe that struck a Persian fleet in 492 BCE. Xerxes had a channel of some two kilometers long constructed, using "detachments of all the peoples of the army, and by the inhabitants of the region, who dug under the threat of the whip". Herodotos saw it as a manifestation of pride more than a work of public utility. It would've sufficed, he says, to build a kind of wooden rail on which the vessels would have been drawn, as was done for the Isthmus of Korinth.
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