Discovery Tour: Ancient Egypt: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 15:21, 11 July 2020

I will lead mankind into a new world!

This article is currently being reworked by XOdeyssusx in order to achieve a better status. We ask that edits to this article are only minor or grammatical in nature until this warning is removed, in order to not disrupt the major revamp. Should you wish to participate in the revamp, please contact the editor at work.

This article is about the Discovery Tour: Ancient Egypt. You may be looking for Discovery Tour: Ancient Greece.

Where are the paintings?

This article is in need of more images and/or better quality pictures from official media in order to achieve a higher status. You can help the Assassin's Creed Wiki by uploading better images on this page.

File:ACO Discovery Tour Banner.png

Promotional banner

Discovery Tour: Ancient Egypt is an educational mode for Assassin's Creed: Origins.

The mode was released as a downloadable add-on on 20 February 2018 and is available for free to those who own the base game, or for purchase as a stand-alone version on PC. In it, players are to free roam the game's map of ancient Egypt and learn about the kingdom's history through a series of guided tours.^[1]

Tours

Egypt

The Major Regions of Egypt

Learn about the major regions of Egypt.

Life in ancient Egypt was concentrated along the shores of the Nile, and divided into two regions.

Lower Egypt (north) was situated on the Nile Delta near the Mediterranean, and Upper Egypt was at the south reaching into Africa.

Due to its proximity to the Mediterranean, temperatures in Lower Egypt were less extreme than in Upper Egypt.

Until 3100 BCE and the unification of Egypt, each region had its own pharaoh and crown.

Lower Egypt's crown was red, and marked with symbols of papyrus and bees.

Upper Egypt's crown was white with symbols of lotus and sedge grass.

Both regions had competing major cities, most notably Memphis in Lower Egypt, and Thebes in Upper Egypt.

There were different religious cults in both regions, each worshipping their own major gods.

Many of the temples were designed in such a way as to represent the two regions, and ceremonies often incorporated Upper and Lower Egypt in their rituals.

Bringer of Life, The Nile River

Learn about the river Nile and it's importance to the development of ancient Egyptian civilization.

The ancient Egyptians called the dark fertile soil of the Nile "the black lands," and the surrounding desert was referred to as "the red lands."

The dramatic difference of productive land opposed to barren desert had a deep influence on cultural ideology, mythology and religion.

The Nile determined much of Egyptian civilization. For example, the seasonal cycle of the Nile was so consistent that ancient Egyptians created their calendar around it.

The flood season, or Akhet, was when the departing floodwaters left arable soil for crops. It was followed by the growing and harvesting seasons known as Peret and Shemu.

These regular seasons along with abundant wildlife and rich soil meant that Egypt's denizens were able to nourish themselves, and their country’s strength in trade.

The river Nile, flowing from the south to the north, neatly traversed through both Upper and Lower Egpyt.

All of Egypt's major cities were built along this narrow ribbon of life.

Protected by mountain ranges and deserts which acted as natural barriers to enemies, and sustained by the Nile's plants and wildlife, Egyptian civilization enjoyed economic and cultural prosperity for over 4000 years.

Both ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks referred to the Nile as "the river" in their respective languages.

Stretching a distance of over 6700 kilometers, the Nile is one of the longest rivers in the world. It flows south to north, spanning eleven countries.

The river Nile originates in the region of the great subequatorial lakes, including one of the largest in the world, Lake Victoria near Tanzania.

The river flows through African equatorial forests, swamps, volcanic lands, steppes and deserts, splitting apart for a while, and picking up various sediments from each region and carrying them all the way to Egypt.

Its main artery, known as the White Nile, rejoins with the Blue Nile in Khartoum. This is where it weaves through rich deposits of silt and nutrients, carrying them along in its wake.

The Nile crosses six cataracts from the south to the north, creating natural obstacles between the various sections of the river.

The cataracts are long zones of about 100 kilometers where the bubbling and rapidly swirling waters advance tumultuously amid enormous heaps of rocks and benches of hard stone.

It is after crossing Nubia and the first cataract that the river officially returns to Egypt, In Aswan.

There are still a thousand kilometers before it reaches Cairo and the Delta, bringing life to those living on its shores, before it eventually empties into the Mediterranean Sea.

Ancient Egyptian irrigation and water use was centered around the Nile. However, they also had access to streams and rivers, as well as several large lakes.

The Delta, situated at the north end of the Nile also known as Lower Egypt, is a large irrigated area where the river splits into several tributaries.

The Delta had several major brackish coastal lakes, bodies of water separated from the sea by thin strips of land.

A mix of deep to shallow waters, salt swamps and sand plains, these lakes were refuge to a wealth of species, as well as water and land plants.

The occasional bandit could also be found, sheltering within the denser reeds, waiting for the unwary traveler.

Deserts of Egypt

Learn about the deserts which cover 94% of Egypt.

Reaching out on either side of the lush Nile are the harsh arid Western Desert and the mountainous Eastern Desert. They cover nearly 94% of Egypt.

Each of these parent deserts have their own microclimate, and contain several smaller deserts with a distinct fauna and flora.

Whale fossils were discovered within the depths of the Sahara. Known as the Valley of the Whales, this location is evidence of the seas which once covered the area.

The White Desert in the northeast of the Sahara owes its name to its limestone soil contrasting with the yellow sand. The wind has eroded the rocks of the White Desert into stone mushrooms, the most famous of which is referred to as the Finger of God.

The Great Sand Sea is a large unbroken desert that reaches out through western Egypt and eastern Libya.

It is home to a unique geological formation known as Libyan silica glass. The pale yellowish-green material ranges from pebble-sized fragments to glass rocks the size of rough boulders.

The Qattara Depression

Learn about the Qattara Depression, in north-western Egypt.

The Qattara Depression is located in the northwest part of Egypt.

Reaching 18,000 square kilometers, the basin is 133 meters below sea level and covered with salt.

It is the second lowest point in Africa, after the Afar Depression.

The climate is very arid, with average temperatures reaching 36 degrees Celsius. The famous Siwa Oasis is located on the protected southwestern region. Today, the Qattara Depression is utilized for oil exploration.

Siwa

Learn about the geography and importance of the oasis of Siwa.

The Siwa Oasis is in the Western Desert of Egypt.

Geographically, the Siwan Oasis is located in a depression 20 meters below sea level. Its natural springs and warm climates aided in the bountiful production of date trees.

Though clearly influenced to some degree by Egyptian and African culture, the area's isolation resulted in a unique society and language.

While they worshipped the same deities, Siwan temple architecture differed from traditional Egyptian temples.

Old Kingdom Egyptians referred to the Oasis as cauldron, due to its unique geographical structure.

Oases were crucial for nomadic tribes and carvans. Without them, there was no chance of survival in an otherwise harsh landscape.

As such, oases quickly became hubs for trade, as well as areas of political control.

Because of the dry climate there is very little rainfall to sustain the oases. Instead, underground rivers flood the natural basins.

Since many oases have a north-south orientation parallel to the Nile, some geologists suggest they were once tributaries of the mighty river.

There is evidence that some ancient Egyptians attempted to create some oases.

The Libyan oases are the best known, as they are geographically and culturally linked to the Nile Valley and the Delta.

These western oases have a distinct geology from the other regions of Egypt.

The most famous and important oases are Kharga, Dakhla, Farafra, Baharia and Siwa.

The Spring of the Sun is one of the many thermal sources in Siwa with the particularity that Cleopatra would have bathed in this one, giving it its name.

The presence of the source beneath was attested already by Herodotus during the 5th century BCE, when the oasis was called Ammoneion by the Greeks of Cyrene.

Oracles predicted the future, delivered omens that could be more or less obscure, and offered divine guidance.

The Siwan Oracle was considered of the three greatest of the ancient world, alongside the oracles of Delphi and Dodoni.

Because of the Greek colonies in Cyrenaica, the temple associated Zeus with the worship of Amun.

It is no wonder that Alexander the Great made the perilous journey to Siwa in order to consult the oracle, emulating the actions of mythical heroes such as Hercules and Perseus.

This action earned the approval of the oracle, who validated his claim as Pharaoh of Egypt.

He was confirmed as the son of Ammon, conferring upon him the most legitimate claim to date of all Egypt's foreign invaders.

The powerful and the rich would send gifts or travel great distances in order to ensure their good fortune by gaining the blessing of the Oracle of Siwa. Every successful blessing only increased the soothsayer's prestige.

Runner Eubotas, a famous citizen of Cyrene, consulted the Oracle in order to win the 93rd Olympic games race in 408 BCE. He did, enhancing the standing of the Siwan Oracle in the process.

(Behind the scenes)

The temple of the Oracle of Amun was built in the 6th Century BCE, by Pharaoh Amasis.

In the game, its entrance is guarded by ram-headed sphinxes, the animal representing Amun. They were inspired by a similar statuary located at the British Museum.

Another option would have a Greek-influenced representation of Zeus-Ammon: a human-headed sphinx with horns. This representation of Zeus-Ammon was very popular in Siwa.

The Faiyum

Learn more about the geography and importance of the Faiyum.

The Faiyum Oasis is an enormous basin in the Western Desert that formed from the Nile's overflow. As such, it is not considered a true oasis, though it gives its name to the region, which covers Lake Moeris.

The oasis harbors some of the oldest archaeological artifacts of the region, indicating that the area has been inhabited by hunters and gatherers since the Neolithic period.

File:DT - The Nile 2003 (Cropped).jpg

Egypt

The Faiyum Oasis drains into Lake Moeris, which was a large freshwater lake but at some time became a saltwater lake.

In the 12th Dynasty, ancient Egyptiaqns redirected the water flow with a damn and dug a supply canal using the lake as their reservoir.

Irrigation enabled them to continue growing crops of figs, grapes and olives year round.

Reed boats, feluccas, triremes and kerkouros were the most commonly found craft within the land-locked waters of Egypt.

They were used for various purposes, ranging from daily fishing, trade, warfare and travel, to the ferrying of massive stone blocks used to build the great monuments of Egypt.

The most impressive pyramids of ancient Egypt date from the Old Kingdom, and can be found on the sites of Giza, Saqqara and Dahshur.

However, one particularly famous pyramid of the time is located elsewhere. During the Middle Kingdom, some pharaohs chose the Faiyum as their resting place. One such ruler was Amenemhat III.

His pyramid left a mark on the imagination of antique chroniclers. They referred to it as the Labyrinth, mostly due to the vast mortuary temple complex at the foot of the pyramid. Herodotus mentioned that he had visited 12 courts and over 3000 of its chambers. But he was also well known for being prone to hyperbole.

(Behind the scenes)

Amenemhat's pyramid was built with a brick core and covered with stone slabs, designed to be impenetrable. The burial chamber, made out of a single block of sandsone, is unique in its design.

Richard Lepsius and Flinders Petrie both explored the pyramid site, measuring 385m by 158m, and identified as the location of the Labyrinth.

Their research conditions were difficult, as most of the site had been submerged by the nearby canal. Furthermore, the stones from the complex and the outer casing of the pyramid had been quarried away long ago.

Founded during the 5th Dynasty, the site was popular during the 12th Dynasty, under the name of Shedet.

During the Ptolemaic era, the metropolis was named Krokodilopolis by the Greeks, in honor of the crocodile god Sobek.

During the Greco-Roman era, the cleruchs, soldiers of the Ptolemies, settled there after their military service and expanded the irrigation systems. Irrigation and water distribution tripled the arable land and turned the city into a lush and rich area. 27 000 inhabitants lived its precinct at its height.

The region's main cult was that of Sobek of Shedet, a divinity assocaited with water and fertility, both very important to an area that depended on irrigation.

Many local villagers had the title "Town of Sobek" added to their official designations.

During festivals, ancient Egyptians recited hymns to Sobek, asking for his divine intervention.

Greek settlers, and later Romans, would help the Temple of Sobek's economy to flourish by adopting the local embalming mortuary rites. Their sarcophagi were beautifully painted, and adorned with amazingly realistic portraits.

Very similar to the cult of the Apis Bull in Memphis, a living crocodile was worshipped within the predicinct of Krokodilopolis's main temple.

Known as Sobek to the Egyptians, and Soukhos to the Greeks, it was reported by Strabo that priests fed it with meat, wine and honeyed milk.

They covered its body with jewel and gold. After its death, it was embalmed and placed within the Crocodiles' Grotto, alongside thousands of other mummified crocodiles.

The City of Memphis

Learn about the city of Memphis and its place through various periods of ancient Egyptian history.

Throughout all ancient Egyptian periods, cities had one thing in common. They were situated along the Nile's shores.

Cities were often designated for government or for worship. Major cities had several temples dedicated to numerous gods and goddesses.

Egyptians referred to the organization of their cities as a sepal, or later by the Persian term, nome. There were twenty sepat in Lower Egypt and twenty-two in Upper Egypt.

The capital city of ancient Egypt changed many times over the periods.

One of the largest was Memphis, Located in Lower Egypt. It was a key center for religious temples, including their most important deity, Ptah, god of creation.

Thebes, located in Upper Egypt, competed with Memphis and featured as both a political and a religious center. Two important temples, Luxor and Karnak, were built there.

A minor capital of the Saite dynasty was the city of Sais. This was the last native Egyptian capital of Egypt.

During the 3rd Dynasty, under Pharaoh Djoser, Memphis became the first religious and administrative capital of Egypt.

Even when the political capital of Egypt decentralized itself, pharaohs were crowned in this sacred city in order to legitimize their ascension to the throne, up to and including, Alexander the Great.

Though little remains today save ruins south of Cairo, we can guess at the structure of the city, which stretched up to 5 kilometers in length and 2 kilometers in width.

Memphis was also referred to as "the city with the hundred doors" or "the white walls". These names were in reference to the wall which surrounded the city.

Under the protection of Ptah, god of craftsmen, the city was a thriving religious and economic hub.

Rediscovering Egypt

Learn about the beginnings of modern archaeology.

In the 19th century, the increased intensity of tourism and excavation, as well as the outflow of antiquities to other countries, threatened Egypt's archaeological heritage. Egyptians took part in this destruction by ransacking sites for artifacts to sell, quarrying stones from ancient monuments and removing sebakh, ancient mud bricks, to reuse for their own purposes.

A major step in conserving Egypt's heritage was taken in 1858, when the Viceroy of Egypt created the Antiquities Service.

Supported by a team of foreign scholars, Auguste Mariette exerted an iron grip on the Service. he carried out his work across Egypt and into Nubia, intervening on almost every major site.

Aware of the necessity of keeping unearthed artifacts in Egypt, Mariette requested a museum be created for that purpose in 1858. This museum was the ancestor of the Egyptian Museum.

Gaston Maspero, Mariette's successor expanded and reorganized the Antiquities Service, and instigated laws regulating the export of artifacts.

French scholars ran the Service until it passed into Egyptian hands in the 1950s.

As of the mid-19th century, Egyptology was fast becoming a recognized discipline within both private institutions and learned societies.

A French architect, archaeologist and former research, Jean-Claude Golvin now specializes in the artistic reconstruction of ancient cities and monuments. To date, he has created more than 800 drawings, which include three volumes focusing on the reconstitution of ancient Egypt. His work is exquisitely detailed, and can be found in books and museums around the world.

(Behind the scenes) The team was thrilled to collaborate with Jean-Claude Golvin in order to recreate Egypt for the game. In the 19 exclusive watercolors he created for the team, Golvin used scientific data as the base and then extrapolated to provide a full interpretation of various locations and monuments in ancient Egypt. Both early sketches and full rendered images were then used by the team as references while building the world of Assassin's Creed Origins.

Although ancient Egypt's rich religious culture and its mortuary monuments continue to be investigated, the modern discipline of Egyptology has shifted focus. Rather than single-minded retrieving impressive artifacts, Egyptologists today focus instead on creasing the body of knowledge. In the past, excavations took place in the field, and while that is still the case today, much of the work on Egyptology now takes place in libraries and archives.

Today, archaeology in Egypt relies on an interdisciplinary approach where traditional Egyptologists are helped by a wide spectrum of scientists from other disciplines and new, non-invasive, techniques. GPS data, satellite imaging and ground-penetrating radar allow archaeologists to gain a sense of what lies underneath the ground before excavating.

Natron

Learn about the uses of natron, and how it was mined and farmed in ancient Egypt.

Natron is a colorless salt that was used by ancient Egyptians for food preservation, cleansing products and glassmaking. It was also used in the mummification process.

During the ceremonial embalmment ritual, the priests packed the body in natron in order to remove all of the moisture. Once the body was thoroughly desiccated, they could begin the wrapping.

Natron was mined in Wadi Natron. The main mining methods involved either cutting slices out of the lakebed when it was dry, or raking through mineral-saturated water to gather the mineral salts during the floods.

(Behind the Scenes)

Both techniques are still used today, and inspired the team in their recreation of the mines located in the mountains northwest of Memphis.

Fauna of Ancient Egypt

Learn about the fauna of ancient Egypt.

Both domesticated and wild animals were features in ancient Egyptian bas reliefs as early as the 1st Dynasty. While the variety of wildlife served as a reliable food source, it also influenced both culture and mythology.

Egypt's terrain allowed for a diverse range of animals, including panthers, rhinoceroses, elephants and many variations of antelopes.

The Nile was home to many species of fish, along with hippopotami and crocodiles.

The wide variety of birds that populated the river banks, from raptors and waterfowl to songbirds, were all catalogued within Egyptian hieroglyphic signs. Encounters with reptiles and insects, such as cobras, scorpions and scarabs, influenced hieroglyphs and art.

While all animals had sacred meanings, lions in particular represented power and royalty to ancient Egyptians. They were so prized by pharaohs that they were hunted to extinction within Egypt.

Flora of Ancient Egypt

Learn about the flora of ancient Egypt.

The climate and unique geography of the Nile Delta offered a wide variety of plant species.

Many of these plants served as sustenance for ancient Egyptians, and as crops for trade.

The Nile's consistent seasons allowed Egypt to sustain itself for centuries.

Possibly the most useful of the plants was the papyrus. This tall sedge plant grew in abundance along the water's edge of the Nile. Commontly known for its use as paper, the ancient Egyptians found many other functions for it, including rope, sandals and mats. Papyriform boats made from the plant are seen in paintings and reliefs, and were used in ritualistic ceremonies.

There were many types of trees along the river Nile, such as the date palm, carob and tamarisk. The earliest fruit tree cultivated was the fig tree, followed by apple, pomegranate and eventually olive trees during the era of the New Kingdom. Mango cultivation was the result of a late import from Asia during the Middle Ages.

Some trees were associated with gods, such as the acacia with Horus. The divinities Thoth and Seshat were depicted inscribing the reign of the king into a persea tree. The sycamore was connected with the goddess Iset, patron of the Ritual of Life.

Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs

Learn about hieroglyphs, how they evolved through time, and what they can teach us anbout ancient Egyptian culture.

Hieroglyphics were used as sacred writing, appearing on monuments, statues and sacred papyrus texts. The earliest symbols that resemble hieroglyphs were on pottery dating back to 4000 BCE. This stylized form of signs and drawings was the only writing used from its ancient origins to the end of pharaonic history. Ancient Egyptians referred to hieroglyphs as the Writing of the Gods.

Considered a difficult language, it was intended for pharaohs, nobility and priests, and meant to be used in ceremonies, within tombs and for government records. Since few Egyptians were able to read the ancient hieroglyphs, the mythological aura around the language was persistent even in their own culture.

The structure of hieroglyphs offers insight into Egyptian culture, not just in what the translations say, but in the structure of the symnbols themselves.

They were found on tomb walls, on sarcophagi, on statues and on pottery, and were meticulously recorded in countless ancient papyri.

In many temples, priests would perform rituals and daily offerings. These were accompanied by hieroglyphs used as spells. In tomb paintings, the hieroglyphs are represented with formulas to recite. These spoken words were meant to be spells which would allow the deceased to benefit from the offerings for all eternity. Spells and offerings were also written for the living, to enhance medicines and cure illnesses.

The most famous of ancient Egyptian documents is the Book of the Dead. Written in hieroglyphs and hieratic texts, it depicts important spells and rituals. These spells were intended to ensure a smooth transition from life to death, and allow the deceased to safely navigate the perils of the afterlife.

Even after it was deciphered, the reading of hieroglyphics remained difficult at times due to the many directions in which they can be read. Depending on the orientation of the signs, hieroglyphics can be read left to right, right to left, horizontally or vertically, though never bottom to top.

A clue on which way to read is to first notice which direction the figurative signs are facing. If a pictogram is looking to the right then the reader is meant to start from the right and read towards the figure. Column text on a papyrus begins from the right, then goes top to bottom for each column.

Text written on tomb walls resembles the structure of a page from a comic book. The text can be placed in front, behind or above the character, and its symbols looks in the same direcftion as the character. Another clue is that the name of a god, or hieroglyphs meaning gods or kings, are always written before the descriptive text.

Compared to alphabetical languages, Egyptian hieroglyphs have more symbols. Confronted with the absence of vowels, the Egyptians invented a category of signs. When placed at the end of words, these signs help inform its meaning. For instance, a drawing of a lion will refer to a lion, and also relate to the abstract concept of a lion as something dangerous or powerful.

Middle Egyptian hieroglyphs contained a little more than 700 signs. By the end of the Greco-Roman period there was 10 000 signs. Egyptologist Sir Alan Gardiner created a list classifying common hierogylphic signs and their variants.

Ancient Egyptian languages have many similarities with Asian and African languages. They have evolved in similar ways to the various forms of written Egyptian. These languages belong to the Chamito-Semitic group. There were five clear evolutions in the Egyptian language, each with their own distinctive structure. These languages are known as Old Egyptian, Middle Egyptian, Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic. Coptic is the only living language that allows linguists to define the vowel structure and to distinguish different dialects.

(Behind the Scenes) While hierogylphs and hieratic script give us an idea as to how the ancient Egyptian language was structured and written, the way it was spoken is still up for debate. The team opted for English as the spoken language, with the characters using ancient Egyptian and Greek words and accents. The language that is spoken in the background by the crowds is largely based on Sir Alan Gardiner's Egyptian Grammar. To help resurrect a dead language, we consulted Egyptologists and dialogue coaches to establish our target sound, and cast actors with Arabic, Hebraic and African backgrounds to bring the game to life.

After Alexander the Great's arrival in Egypt and the establishment of his reign, Greek became the language used by the governing bodies. The inability to read hieroglyphs caused resentment among the Greek population. It's from this tension that the Rosetta Stone was created.

Jean-François Champollion

Learn how the hieroglyphs were identified and deciphered.

The Founding of Cyrene

Learn about the city of Cyrene.

File:DT - Map of the World by Eratosthenes of Cyrene.jpg

Map of the world by Eratosthenes of Cyrene, circa 240 BCE

Cyrenaica stretches across the coast of northwest Africa. It was known as Pentopolis in antiquity, a reference to the five main cities that formed the Greek colonies.

Built on a lush plateau of the Green Mountains in what is present day Libya, a colony of Greek settlers formed the city in 630 BCE.

Cyrene's population quickly grew, spreading out across the terraces of the plateau, making it the first and largest of the five colonies.

The city of Cyrene was founded by Battos Aristottle, guided by the Oracle of Delphi.

Overcrowded and suffering from drought, Battos's home island of Thera could not sustain its citizens. Battos consulted the oracle who told them to journey to the North African coast in search of arable land.

A series of kings reigned over the city in the first two centuries. However, rebellion eventually ended the monarchy and henceforth, the city was governed by the aristocracy.

The key features of Cyrene were temples dedicated to gods: Apollo, Demeter and Zeus alongside Ptolemaic gods such as Iset and Serapis.

A large agora defined the city center, and on the western edge, the famed Acropolis was built.

A fortification wall was added around the harbor at the end of the 2nd century CE. As the city grew, more buildings were constructed beyond the walls.

Under Roman influence Cyrene became an economic powerhouse, rising in status throughout the Mediterranean.

Cyrene's school of medicine rivaled all others except for that of the Greek city Cos.

Some of the great minds in ancient math, astronomy and geography were born or established in the various schools of the city, which included an institute of philosophy founded by Aristippos, a pupil of Socrates.

From 115 to 117 CE there was a revolt in the Jewish quarter that greatly damaged the city of Cyrene.

Over time, a succession of battles, poor management of its silphium crop and earthquakes eventually took their toll on the city.

It was completely abandoned in 365 CE.

The nearby port of Apollonia was an ideal location with its natural cove, sheltered by two islands and rocky inlets.

Along with a lighthouse, the port was later equipped with quays and warehouses to accommodate the increased shipping traffic.

With its success as a commercial trading port, Apollonia surpassed Cyrene to eventually become the capital of the Pentapolis.

A number of earthquakes gradually shifted the city causing many of its original structures to sink. Some of its ruins can still be seen underwater.

The Agora & Thermal Baths

Learn about the communal public spaces of Cyrene and their function within the city.

The Temple of Zeus in Cyrene

Learn about the Temple of Zeus, in Cyrene.

Facing east towards the rising sun stands the temple dedicated to the cult of Zeus. It was built sometime in the 5th century BCE. Seventy meters long with forty-six Doric-style columns, the imposing structure was the largest Greek temple erected in Africa. It was only slightly larger than the Parthenon, and the Temple of Zeus in Olympia.

The exterior was designed with the decorative elements common to Doric architecture. The dimensions of the columns were different, giving visitors an impression of uniqueness when viewing each façade.

After the temple was destroyed during the Jewish rebellion, Emperor Hadrian had it reconstructed. He chose not to rebuild the outer portico, but did restore the new Corinthian columns in marble. The temple was later completed under Marcus Aurelius.

In the time of Augustus, a faithful but smaller imitation of the Olympian Zeus was used to be worshiped. Hadrian then installed a new 12-meter high statue matching the Zeus in Olympia. It was made of chiseled marble with the head, arms and feet carved in the round.

(Behind the Scenes) Archeologists confirm that there was a monumental statue of Zeus in this temple, though experts remain divided on whether it was one of Zeus, or one more specific to the cult of Zeus-Ammon. The team elected to place a statue of Zeus-Ammon in this location, knowing that Cyrene was central to the spread of this cult in the Greek Mediterranean area.

Important Monuments of Cyrene

Learn about the Sanctuary of Apollo & the Amphitheater of Cyrene.

The Acropolis of Cyrene

Learn about the acropolis ward in the city of Cyrene.

Located on the western edge of city, Cyrene's acropolis was smaller than the one in Athens, though its high vantage point provided protection for the city. At its entrance was a single door, flanked by two towers. An inscription, Legible to this day, states that the walls and the citadel were restored in the time of Augustus.

A number of statuettes have been excavated from the site, including one of Berenice, the daughter of Magus the king of Cyrene, and half-brother of Ptolemy II. At the northeast tower, there is a sanctuary consisting of two small temples with a vestibule, and an altar believed to be that of Serapis and Iset. When the temples were excavated, archaeologists found traces of fire damage; however there are no indications as to when this fire occured.

(Behind the Scenes) In the 20th century, a fortification was built above the ward, to defend against an invading army. It covered the ancient remains of nearby Roman houses entirely, and archaeologists have yet to fully excavate them.

The Gladiator Arena

Learn about gladiator arenas in the Roman Republic.

(Behind the Scenes)

While gladiators would not perform in Cyrene until tater in the Roman era, the team decided to include a gladiatorial arena for two reasons.

First, they believed it was important to portray this aspect of Roman life, and second, they felt it would add interesting gameplay possibilities.

The first gladiators to enter the arena were prisoners of war. It was a spectacle of violent clashes between men and against wild beasts that lasted nearly a thousand years.

Eventually volunteers began to enter the ring. For status and money, many of the more skilled combatants increased the quality of the entertainment. Thus, the profession of gladiator came to be. Bound by contract to the master of the gladiators, the fighters were fed, trained and guarded in barracks.

Gladiators were separated into heavy and light armored fighters, each with their own set of specific armor and weapons. Organizers often had two audience-favored factions face each other in combat.

The events were highly organized. Fights were held with a background of music, and supervised by a referee. Death, either in the course of combat or by decision, was not always the only way out for the loser. Several were released due to their performance, and gained great notoriety as celebrities.

Major Exports of Cyrene

Learn about the major sources of economic weath for Cyrene.

Cyrene's main source of economic wealth was in the cultivation and export of poppies and silphium.

Though the opium oil from the poppies was also an export, little is known about this crop.

Information about the cultivation of silphium, however, is more accessible to us.

Silphium, with its yellow flower, was considered a gift from the sun god. Grown solely in this region near the Mediterranean sea, silphium extract was exported at high prices and was so crucial to the wealth of Cyrenaica that it was depicted on their coins.

Silphium's roots produced a resin used by both the Greeks and Romans in medicines intended to cure cough, fever, indigestion and many other ailments. It was also used as a contraceptive. In a compilation of culinary recipes from the 4th century BCE, the herb is mentioned in various recipes, including a flamingo dish.

High demand, overexploitation and possibly a shift in climate all contributed to the eventual extinction of silphium. The last mention of it dates from the 4th century CE and to this day no traces of this plant have been identified.

Pyramids

The Origin of the Pyramid

The Step Pyramid Complex of Djoser

Inside Djoser's Step Pyramid

Sneferu's First Pyramid

With the long reign of Sneferu, the first king of the 4th Dynasty, the most brilliant and creative period began for the construction of funerary monuments in Egypt.

Funerary monument design moved from the step pyramid to the smooth-faced pyramid, testament to the evolution of the practices of construction.

The first attempt at this design was the pyramid of Meidum.

While Sneferu's monument started as a seven- stepped pyramid, it was later altered into an eight-stepped structure. The final phase of construction saw the steps filled out, and an outer casing applied to achieve a smooth surface.

The smooth dressing of the walls did not provide sufficient bonding however, and the outer casing did not rest on sound foundations. As a result, the bases of the four outer buttress walls gave way, causing the walls to slide down and collapse. While the Meidum pyramid was abandoned due to design flaws, it showcased other innovations that would impact all future pyramid designs.

Às well as the smooth sides, it was the first time a ceremonial pavement was built, Leading from the valley to the temple of the pyramid. Another innovation was that of the funerary chamber, which was no longer at the bottom of a well, but rather above ground level. This change signaled the beginning of the three-bedroom system.

The Bent Pyramid of Dahshur

After the construction of the Meidum pyramid failed, Sneferu transferred his residence and the official necropolis to Dahshur. There he began construction on his second attempt at a funerary monument. The resulting structure, known as the Bent Pyramid, is the only one of its shape in Egypt.

Though the pyramid also proved unstable and was abandoned, it marked a technical and architectural breakthrough. Heralding an important design transition, the Bent Pyramid displays a shift from the step pyramid to a functional smooth-sided pyramid.

The Bent Pyramid was unique in having two separate entrances; one on the northern face and another on the western face. The chamber of this pyramid was too small for a human burial. It was probably meant for the burial of a statue designated to house the ka, the “vital spirit” of the deceased king.

With the Bent Pyramid, architects successfully experimented with a completely new idea: to build the pyramid with a core of huge stones settled on a progressive horizontal design. This way, each construction phase could be completed in a single stage, allowing the architect complete control over every design element. Unfortunately, these precautions did not prevent sagging or cracks in the interior rooms of the pyramid. Sneferu abandoned the monument, and began the construction of yet another pyramid.

The Red Pyramid of Dahshur

The Red Pyramid was built two kilometers to the north of the Bent Pyramid. It was so named due to the reddish limestone used in its construction.

The Red Pyramid reached a height of 105 meters. While the ground level of the Red Pyramid is lower than that of the Bent Pyramid, its height is virtually the same.

The task of making the pyramid a geometrical, true flat-face pyramid brought about yet another new design concept: the use of casing blocks.

The descending corridor of the pyramid, which opens to the north, arrives at ground level, where two almost identical spectacular chambers with high ceilings are aligned north to south, and connected by a short horizontal passage. In the south wall of the second chamber, accessed by a staircase, another corridor leads to the final chamber, which is built within the masonry of the pyramid itself, and aligned east to west.

The annexes of the Red Pyramid consist of a small funerary temple, Located to the east. A causeway presumably ran due east from the temple, but it has yet to be excavated.

The Red Pyramid was structurally sound, and once finished, marked a remarkable design milestone. Finally successful in his attempts to buitd himself a suitable funerary monument, Sneferu knew his future beyond death was assured.

Pyramids of the Middle Kingdom

During the Middle Kingdom era, the powerful rulers of the 12th dynasty resumed the tradition of elaborate pyramidal tombs. For example, Amenemhbat I built a funerary complex in Lisht, and Senwosret II selected the Illahoun site in the Faiyum. Amenemhat II and Sesostris III however, cast their favor towards Dahshur. Amenembhat III built a pyramid there as well before moving to Hawara in the Faiyum.

The plundering of tombs in troubled times prompted the architects of the Middle Kingdom to devise increasingly complicated means of security during construction. As such, while the architectural plans of the Hawara pyramid were simpler than the one at Dahshur, the means used to protect it from looters were much more elaborate. Beyond the use of blind passages and concealed trapdoors, the architects relied on a system of stone slabs which were slid into place at the end of construction. These massive stone stabs were meant to permanently block the passageways leading to the funerary chambers.

The kings of the 13th Dynasty began building their pyramids at Mazghouna, south of Dahshur, then moved on to Faiyum and Abydos. The kings of the 17th dynasty, however, satisfied themselves with crowning their cave tombs with small pyramids of raw brick. The kings of the 18th dynasty gave up the shape of the pyramid as a royal tomb entirely. They chose a mountain with a pyramidal shape in the Valley of Kings, and dug their graves there.

It was not until the Nubian pharaohs of the 25th dynasty that kings were once again buried under pyramidal tombs. In fact today, the area of ancient Nubia, modern Sudan, contains a record number of 220 known pyramids, to Egypt's 138. Despite their slow decline in use and quality, pyramids continued to fascinate all and sundry, up to the Roman era. They remain to this day a symbol of the religious dedication of the Pharaohs, and the grandeur of ancient Egypt.

An Overview of The Giza Necropolis

The Giza plateau is located on the West Bank of the Nile, and was considered by ancient Egyptians as the domain of the dead. The pyramidal complexes found there were built over the span of three generations, during the reign of Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure.

The Giza area, now famous for its three pyramidsm is part of a wider grouping of funerary complexes. Rulers from this period generally elected to be buried in the area. The focal point of the entire region was the city of Memphis, chosen as the capital of Egypt at the beginning of the Old Kingdom.

The placement of the Giza monuments and particularly that of the pyramids, followed a practical, yet strict alignment. First they focused on cardinal points, and then they accounted for the natural geology of the plateau.

The Riddles of the Sphinx

Khufu's Funerary Complex

The Secrets of the Great Pyramid

The Great Pyramid: Subterranean Chamber

The Great Pyramid of Giza: Upper Chambers

Jean-Pierre Houdin's Theories

Khafre's Funerary Complex

Menkaure's Funerary Complex

The dimensions of Menkaure's pyramid are much less grandiose. However, unlike its predecessors, Menkaure's pyramid shows a great deal of complexity in its internal and external finish. The outside was partially covered in red granite, while the internal walls were richly decorated. This latter innovation would not catch on until the end of the 5th dynasty, when pyramid texts began to adorn the walls.

Menkaure's pyramid contains two sloping passages, both located in the northern side of the structure. The upper one was abandoned during the construction phase, whereas the lower one, slightly above the base of the monument, constitutes the real entrance. The lower passage leads to a first room, which, for the first time since the reign of Djoser, is decorated with engraved false doors.

While Menkaure's pyramid complex was unfinished at the time of his death, it was hastily, and somewhat shabbily, completed by his successor, Shepseskaf. Even so, this funerary structure marks a watershed in the history of this kind of monument. From then onwards, the pyramid shrank, whereas the mortuary temple expanded both in its quantitative and qualitative aspects. Of particular note, it is within Menkaure's mortuary temple that one can find the heaviest block of limestone ever used for a pyramid complex, weighing in at over 200 tons.

Menkaure's causeway was completed in mud-brick by the king's successor, whereas the lower part was nothing more than a simple ramp. As for the valley temple, it was built in two phases: the foundations were first laid out in limestone during Menkaure's reign, but the temple itself was completed in mud-brick afterwards. As such, the valley temple was soon damaged and ended up being completely rebuilt during the 6th dynasty.

Three small structures referred to as Menkaure's Queens' Pyramids, were erected along the southern side of the main pyramid. One of them was a smooth-faced pyramid, while the other two were more basic step pyramids. Itis difficult to assess whether the latter were designed as such or were left unfinished, with no casing to smooth out their surfaces.

The easternmost pyramid was built with the traditional rooms and corridors found within a satellite pyramid meant to house the King's ka. However, a granite sarcophagus was found within, Leading to the conclusion that it was used as an actual tomb rather than as a symbolic cenotaph. Drawing on these observations, some assume that this pyramid was first built as a satellite pyramid for the king's ka, before seeing its purpose change to that of a queen's tomb. Which queen, however, remains a mystery.

Alexandria

The Greek Pharaohs

Learn about the founding of the Ptolemaic Dynasty.

Pharaohs were considered divine incarnations of the gods. As an avatar of the gods living on earth, the pharaoh's role was to preserve fundamental values and universal harmony by removing chaos, isfet, and ensure that justice, maat, prevailed. The pharaoh, by divine ancestry and through multiple offerings, was the bond that unites the world of men to the world of the gods and allows the maintenance of the cosmic order.

The Ptolemaic dynasty reigned over Egypt from 305 BCE to 30 BCE. The dynasty was called the Ptolemies of the Lagides in recognition of the founder of the Dynasty, Ptolemy Lagos, a Greek general and close friend of Alexander the Great. While Macedonian, Ptolemy Lagos understood that to be accepted by the Egyptian people, he would have to adopt their traditions. Upon assuming the title of pharaoh he changed his name to Ptolemy I Soter, meaning "savior."

Born in 356 BCE, Alexander the Great went through a hasty education in the affairs of the kingdom before integrating into the Macedonian army, where he quickly rose through the ranks.

After his father's assassination in 336 BCE, which some believed was orchestrated by Alexander himself, he became king of Macedonia.

Ruler of a unified kingdom and leader of a large army, Alexander set his sights on conquest. Eager to reclaim Greek cities of Asia Minor, he took on the Persian forces, earning victory after victory.

Ever victorious, Alexander the Great marched on, laying siege to city after city, until he reached Egypt, where the Persians were defeated yet again. Viewed as a liberator by the Egyptian people, Alexander decided to become pharaoh in blue form. He traveled to Thebes to make a sacrifice to Apis, then went to the oasis of Siwa, where he was proclaimed son of Ammon. Officialy pharaoh of Egypt, Alexander spent much of the winter there, and founded the city of Alexandria. Perhaps not coincidentally, being pharaoh allowed Alexander to spread propaganda to prepare further conquests. He resumed his military campaigns in 331 BCE.

On his deathbed in 323 BCE, Alexander the Great gifted the satrapy of Egypt to Ptolemy Lagos. Perfectly aware of the value of Egypt, Ptolemy ensured not only the stability of the country's borders, but also its economic and military development. At the same time, he worked with the Egyptian elite to maintain the interal order of the country. By 305 BCE, Ptolemy, well respected both in Egypt and in the Mediterranean, was at the head of the largest fleet of the Hellenistic world. Ptolemy officially took the title of pharaoh of Egypt in January 304 BCE, on the anniversary of Alexander the Great's death.

Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE. His remains were placed first in a solid gold sarcophagus, and then within another. The casket was carried in a an ornate custom wagon, glided and set with precious stones and pulled by sixty-four mules crowned in gold. The funeral procession was diverted to a grandiose temple in Alexandria built in the conqueror's honor, under the orders of Ptolemy I.

Julius Caesar visited Alexander's tomb at the capture of Alexandria, and the Roman Emperor Augustus reported placed flowers there. However, though many powerful leaders claimed to have visited it, the tomb's location has gone missing from history. Some accounts do state that the golden coffin was replaced by a glass sarcophagus, probably by Ptolemy X. It is also implied that Cleopatra may have plundered the tomb in a time of financial crisis.

Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt

Learn about Cleopatra, the last of the ancient Egyptian pharaohs.

Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator ascended the throne in 51 BCE, at the age of eighteen. Though her early attempts to maintain power were often challenged, she eventually prevailed, and became the sole ruler of Egypt. According to Plutarch, she was the only Ptolemaic pharaoh to speak the Egyptian language. Her intelligence, coupled with a good education and a great political mind, allowed her to make the alliances necessary to maintain the independence of Egypt while Rome was becoming a Mediterranean empire.

It is important to understand that Cleopatra's knowledge of Egyptian language and keen understanding of Egyptian language and keen understanding of the culture allowed her to make powerful ideological referents that resonated with ancient Egyptians. By associating herself with the goddess Iset, the divine mother, great of magic and repository of divine essence, Cleopatra firmly established herself as the Protector of the Two Lands, and legitimized her place on the throne.

Upon his death in 51 BCE, Ptolemy XII Aulos bequeathed his kingdom to his daughter and eldest son: Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII. As was custom, the siblings were married. The new pharaoh was 10 years old, his sister-wife 17. The early years of their reign were not easy. Between 50 and 48 BCE, droughts and floods aggravated Egypt's problems. General Achillas and the royal advisor Potheinos kept intervening in the young rulers' political decisions, and eventually colluded to turn Ptolemy XIII against Cleopatra. By 48 BCE, Cleopatra was in exile.

During Cleopatra's exile, the Roman empire was not without its own internal conflict. Caesar and Pompey were at war with one another, and after his defeat in 48 BCE, Pompey fled to Alexandria in the hope of finding refuge. This turned out to be an unwise decision. Listening to his advisors, Ptolemy XIII elected to have Pompey assassinated, his head kept as a gift in the hopes of acquiring Caesar's favor. This gambit backfired. Instead of earning approval, the murder of a Roman greatly angered Caesar.

Cleopatra, aware of Caesar's anger against Ptolemy for the murder of Pompey, decided to take advantage of the situation.

She returned to Egypt in secret, hoping to establish an alliance with one of the most powerful men of the time.

Outside of the legend where she had herself smuggled into his quarters in a carpet, what exactly happened during that fateful meeting remains a mystery. However, Caesar seemed to see a better ruler for Egypt in Cleopatra than in her young and too-easily influenced brother.

Invoking Ptolemy XII's will, Caesar attempted to mediate peace between the siblings.

Ptolemy XIII was enraged by the turn of events, and his advisors were none too happy to see Cleopatra return. Urged on by General Achillas and Potheinos, the young Pharaoh plotted against Caesar and Cleopatra, resulting in the siege of Alexandria in 47 BCE. It was in March 47 BCE that Caesar defeated Ptolemy XIII's forces. The young pharaoh drowned in the Nile after having fled the battlefield. With her opponents dead or powerless, Cleopatra married her other much younger brother, Ptolemy XIV, and finally claimed the throne of Egypt for good.

In June of 47 BCE, Cleopatra gave birth to a son, whom she called Caesarion. Caesar did not accept the boy as his heir, choosing instead his nephew, Octavian. Nonetheless, on his return to Rome, Caesar invited the queen and her brother-husband to stay in the city. Her presence still drew much disapproval from the senate. Always a strategist, Caesar left four legions in Egypt, and a man he trusted to direct Egyptian affairs, giving him control of the wheat supplies essential to Rome. Cleopatra and her entourage remained in Rome until March 44 BCE, when Caesar was murdered.

Caesar's most faithful ally, Mark Antony, often visited the queen of Egypt during his stay in Rome. Unlike most, he recognized the legitimacy of Caesarion, the natural son of Caesar. Antony knew he would need the riches of Egypt, in order to fight OCtavian and claim the Roman Empire. Cleopatra, in return, saw a powerful ally. In the winter of 41 BCE, she arranged a sumptuous tour of Egypt by boat, to show Antony the wealth of her country and the power she held as its ruler. A romantic and political relationship followed. The Roman senate was once against most displeased. To calm spirits in Rome, Antony married Octavia, sister of Octavian.

Despite his marriage to Octavia, Antony remained Cleopatra's lover, and she gave birth to their children. Cleopatra increased her kingdom's territory, and started a political propaganda alongside her lover, in Egypt and beyond. She hoped to create a Ptolemaic federal empire, with Alexandria at its center. Antony eventually repudiated his Roman wife for the Egyptian queen, much to the dismay of the Roman elite. However, while Mark Antony focused on Egypt, Octavian carefully gained military and political ascendency over him in Rome.

Octavian managed his own propaganda campaign, and succeeded. The Roman people hated Mark Antony and Cleopatra. To avoid the censure still inherent in attacking a fellow Roman, Octavian simply declared war against Egypt. Rome's power still reigned supreme. The powerful Egyptian fleet, led by Cleopatra as well as Mark Antony's forces, were defeated in 31 BCE in Actium. Octavian arrived in Egypt in 30 BCE, to formalize his victory.

The following events remain difficult to confirm, due to the many versions and legends around them.

It is believed that after hearing a rumur about Cleopatra's suicide, Mark Antony commited suicide himself. He was brought to the queen, as he slowly passed away.

Knowing that Octavian would have her chained and paraded through Rome in defeat, Cleopatra planned her own suicide.

She most likely killed herself with arsenic, though admittedly the version where she uses an asp to deliver a fatal bite may be considered more dramatic.

What happened to the body of Cleopatra is still a mystery...

The Siege of Alexandria

Learn about the siege of Alexandria, from Julius Caesar's perspective.

Introduction to Alexandria

Learn about the city of Alexandria and the Canopic Way.

After conquering Egypt in 331 BCE, Alexander the Great decided to build a new city, which, as per his habit, he named after himself.

After his death, Alexandria quickly became the capital city of the Ptolemaic kingdom, and the most importantly city of the Greek world.

The city was built between the Mediterranean sea and the Lake Mareotis, which resulted in Alexandria becoming a crucial cultural hub and trading center.

Sumptuous buuildings could be seen wherever one turned their gaze: the royal palaces, the many temples, the gymnasium, lush public gardens, and large avenues.

Alexandria: Planning of the City

Learn about the design and layout of the city of Alexandria.

Alexander's plan to build his great city began with a verse from Homer's Odyssey.

"There is, in front of Egypt, in the sea with many swells, an island called Pharos."

Guided by these clues, Alexander the Great founded his future city at the western end of the Nile Delta.

Though Alexander considered this location ideal for his great city, it presented considerable challenges. Too difficult to access during storms, the surrounding swamps threatened disease, and the limestone soil prevented the growth of healthy crops. However, due to the influence of his mentor Aristotle, Alexander the Great recognized that the true value was its strategic emplacement. Alexander knew that in controlling Pelusium to the east, Memphis to the south and his crowning glory, Alexandria to the west, he would create a triangular stronghold allowing him to control the entire Delta while giving him access to the Mediterranean.

The great walls of Alexandria had a humble beginning. Lacking chalk to outline the future city's foundations, architects were forced to use flour instead. Clouds of migrating birds swept down and ate the flour, erasing the plans. This prompted Alexander to seek guidance from the oracles, who reassured him that his future city was destined to feed a large population.

Excavations led by Mahmoud bey El-Falaki in the 19th century revealed that the wall enclosure measured approximately 5.2 kilometers in length, and 2.2 kilometers in width. It was roughly 9 meters in height.

These formidable ancient walls would resist a number of attacks, including fending off the king of Syria in 169 BCE. It wasn't until 295 CE that they eventually fell to Roman Emperor Diocletian, and this only after eight months of relentless assault.

Alexandria's principle architect, Deinokrates, chose a Hippodamian grid plan. The grid maximized functionality, with wide straight roads and canals running beneath them. Alexander recognized the military value of the city's design. The wide parallel streets gave him optimal surveilance of the city while allowing the unobstructed flow of troops.

A central corridor ran from the Mediterranean's north port down to Lake Mareotis to the south. This thoroughfare acted as an unobstructed link for commercial trade and travel between the two ports. Many of the streets were bordered with grand buildings and parks, including the Canopic Street with its impressive gate bordering the eastern end.

Alexandria was most likely built upon an already existing Egyptian village. Upon its completion, the Egyptians reviled the city, refusing to call it by its founder's name. Instead, they called it Ra-qed, "the building." as a mark of disdain, which was later Hellenized into Rhakotis. Despite this, the name Alexandria would remain.

Alexandria: A Commercial Hub

Learn about the major economical role of Alexandria during ancient times.

The ports of Alexandria were a major commercial hub, effectively connecting Egypt with the Mediterranean regions and beyond. À tremendous amount of materials and goods flowed through the city on a daily basis. The large port market was called the Emporion. It was there that the merchandise was traded by the ship owners, called naukleros.

Food and other artisan work streamed out of Egypt; ceramics, glass, golden rings and minted coinage. The local potters, using traditional Egyptian techniques, competed with those from abroad, and the textile industry flourished. What Egypt did not produce itself was acquired through trade using local resources such as wheat and papyrus. Most sought after was pine wood from Syria, iron and marble from the Greek islands, gold from Spain, and exotic fruits from Europe. All this commercial activity contributed to the already decadent wealth of the city.

The wood imported to Port Mareotis through Alexandria's seaward ports was used in the nearby shipyards, where most of Egypt's ships were built. Employing tens of thousands of ship builders, the shipyards contributed to establishing the Egyptian fleet as one of the mightiest of the era. Any wood not used in shipbuilding was further disseminated through Egypt for various purposes.

(Behind the scenes) The southern port of Lake Mareotis was the biggest in Alexandria. Save for a branch angling westward, the lake's size in the Ptolemaic era was roughly 40 to 50 kilometers, from north to south. Its waters were maintained by a steady runoff from the Nile. In addition to the lake, a man-made canal was created to assist in the transfer of goods from the city to the port using barges, though it is not represented in the game due to its size.

Banking was one of the most distinctive innovations brought by the Greeks to Egypt. The centerpiece of Alexandria's wealth was the royal systematisation of taxes on almost everything. Basic items such as salt, oil, beer, wheat and linen were heavily taxed. Às a result, the royal treasury of Alexandria was able to insure the economic stability of most of the administrative areas of Egypt.

By the late 12th century, the channel feeding the lake from the Nile silted up. Lake Mareotis lost its connection to the Mediterranean as well as most of its water, as the lake slowly evaporated to a fraction of its former size. In modern times Lake Mareotis is being kept alive through irrigation. However, only about 17% of its original size remains.

Alexandria, City of Celebration

Learn about the various forms of entertainment that existed in Alexandria.

Like most Greek cities, Alexandria offered multiple forms of entertainment. Most were related to cults, religious practices and the festivities surrounding those practices.

Among those festivities, the most important ones were the dynastic celebrations instituted in honor of the deified Ptolemaic kings and queens.

These celebrations could go on for many days and included sacrifices, offerings, processions and public banquets.

Games and competitions were organized whenever possible in Locations such as the stadium, the hippodreme and the gymnasium. The residents of Alexandria favored such events, where athletes, poets and musicians from Egypt and other cities of the Greek world competed.

(Behind the Scenes) Like all good Greek cities, Alexandria had a theater. The architecture of this structure is Roman in style. This is because the team duplicated a theater from Cyrene. Roman theaters were usually semicircular and built from scratch on a flat area with structures designed to enhance oration. Greek theaters were more oblong in shape, similar to a horseshoe and favored the slopes of natural hills to support their acoustics.

Atthe theater, one could witness the plays of contemporary, comic and tragic authors. The play you are witnessing below is Menander's Dyskolos, more commonly known as The Grouch, a late and popular entry in the Greek comedies.

Education in Alexandria

The education of young Alexandrians did not differ from the one generally dispensed elsewhere in Ancient Greece.
At the age of seven, the child was taken in charge by a tutor, who then became responsible for instilling an elementary education, as well as good moral principles.

Teaching was generally done outside, in the open air. In the gymnasium, students were taught not only sports, but also topics such as rhetoric, philosophy, music and poetry - all things deemed essential to ones' education at the time.

(Behind the scenes) Here, both boys and girls are shown attending a class given by one of the rhetoricians of the era. The team made the choice to show both genders attending class within the context of the game world. Even though it is historically innacurate, the team felt it was not necessary to prioritize historical sexism over inclusive gameplay.

The Great Library of Alexandria

Discover the history of the greatest library in antiquity and learn about the great minds of the ancient world.

Near the district of royal palaces and within the Mouseion was the most famous library of all Antiquity.

The Library of Alexandria was built to house all of human knowledge.

At its pinnacle the library was believed to contain over 700,000 parchments.

(Behind the scenes) Throughout the centuries, fires and wars between Christianity and paganism destroyed the library, leaving nothing behind. The loss of the building, and more importantly its vast collection, is immeasurable. As no descriptions are available, the team's rendition of the Library of Alexandria was inspired by the visuals of the library of Celsus at Ephesus.

While much of the collection was purchased at the government's expense, the library also obtained books through other means.

Any books owned by travelers coming through the city were seized to be copied for the library. The copy would then be returned to the owner and the original entered into the library's collection.

Alexandria offered unrivaled intellectual and cultural attractions. Eminent scholars from Athens, Rhodes and other Greek centers traveled to the city to learn and engage with other free thinkers.

Both the Mouseion and the Library were at the center of groundbreaking ideas, and creative expression.

The great minds of antiquity were usually well versed in many disciplines, which were often associated with specific schools of thoughts. The Peripatetics, the Stoics and the Cynics were among the most well-known schools of the time. It is clear that Alexandria lived up to its fundamental role as a city for intellectuals, nurturing many great minds whose impact reverberates through our modern world.

Hypatia of Alexandria was a Greek mathematician, philosopher, astronomer and inventor. Though born in Greece, she eventually migrated to Alexandria, like many great minds of the time. Itis there that she became the head of the Neoplatonist School of Alexandria. From most accounts, she was highly respected by her fellow Alexandrians, both as a teacher and a philosopher. With her death, the age of great ancient scientific discoveries came to an end.

Kaltimachos was born in Cyrene and educated in Athens. After his studies, he moved to Alexandria to work in the Great Library. A poet and a critic, he strongly rejected the epic format of Homeric poems, and instead fervently supported a shorter, more judiciously formulated style of poetry. His epigrams and elegiac poems were emulated by later poets. His work was extremely popular, second only to Homer's own works.

It was in Alexandria that mathematician Euclid, the father of geometry, wrote The Elements, laying out the foundational work of what would become modern algebra and number theory. Euclidean geometry would become one of the most influential systems in the evolution of mathematics.

How do you calculate the circumference of the Earth? With a camel, two sticks and shadows cast by the sun. This is what Eratosthenes of Cyrene, described in his principal work, Geography, while he was director of the Great Library of Alexandria. He is credited for the invention of the armillary sphere, around 250 BCE.

The eartiest known and most complete armillary sphere of antiquity was the Meteoroskopion of Alexandria, with an imposing nine rings, compared to the three or four of most other astrolabes. Known as the Zodiac Krikotoi amongst the Greeks, the Meteoroskopion was used to determine the location of celestial bodies around the Earth. Every self-respecting astronomer of antiquity would have sought to use this tool to better understand the celestial movements.

Pythagoras of Samos was a well-known and respected philosopher and mathematician. He is best known for the Pythagorean theorem. However, there is proof that the theorem existed in Babylonia and India long before Pythagoras was born, casting some doubts as to who exactly originated the theorem.

The Mouseion of Alexandria

Learn about the Mouseion of Alexandria and its function within the city.

The Mouseion was a sector of the city commissioned by Ptolemy |, to rival Athens' Academy as an institute of intellectual pursuit. Dedicated to the nine inspiring Muses, the Mouseion became a great center for philosophical and scientific enlightenment. It welcomed scholars from many kingdoms, inviting them to share knowledge in literature, science and geography.

The Mouseion was designed so that its buildings and grounds would accommodate free thinking, debate and presentation. Meeting spaces and theaters surrounded a main courtyard. Expansive gardens were filled with exotic plants that aided in the study and supply of herbs and medicines. A zoo offered the study of animal behavior and physiology. Also among the Mouseion's many star attractions was its astronomical observatory.

Herophilos was a physician who lived most of his life in Alexandria. He was able to perform the dissection of human cadavers on a large scale due to the permissiveness of the city in such matters. Among many other discoveries, he learned that the brain was central to the human nervous system. He also extensively mapped the blood system and measured the pulse with the aid of a water clock. It is reported that in his thirst to understand human anatomy, he performed 600 vivisection on five prisioners.

In order to be free to pursue their research, scholars were fed and housed at the Mouseion at the government's expense. This freedom provided Alexandria's scholars a meeting space for intellectual pursuits, and a haven for spiritual peace. Though nothing remains of the original Mouseion, it lives on as the legacy of our modern museums.

The Serapeion of Alexandria

Learn about the Serapeion of Alexandria and its function within the city.

In a city of numerous magnificent attractions, the Serapeion was considered to be the most beautiful temple of Alexandria. Located southwest of the city on a small hill known as the Acropolis, the sanctuary was constructed during the reign of Ptolemy III, upon foundations which had existed since the reign of Ptolemy I Soter.

Visitors of the Serapeion climbed a hundred steps to reach the courtyard. Libraries were installed in the porticoes surrounding the square building, with its roof and columns adorned with gold and gilded bronze. Pharaohs were generous to the temple, as were several Roman emperors after Egypt's conquest. An inner temple housed the statue of Serapis, dedicated to healing the sick.

Since the 26th dynasty, Greeks in Egypt had gradually integrated the Egyptian cult of the Apis bull to their own rituals. With the establishment of the Ptolemaic dynasty, the cult of Apis was further integrated into Greek religion. During his rule, Ptolemy | chose to merge Egyptian and Hellenic gods into a syncretic divinity named Serapis. This name was the result of the amalgamation of Osiris and Apis. With this new deity, the Ptolemaic dynasty managed to accommodate similar belief sets for two different cultures, bringing about a new dynastic cult.

Serapis was also associated to other deities, including Asclepius, a Greek god of healing. It is possible that as with the Serapis temple of Kanopos, the sick would visit this sanctuary, sleeping there overnight in the hopes of being healed within its hallowed halls.

The Islands of Pharos

Learn about the Islands of Pharos, and the monuments located on the islands.

The Heptastadion was a bridge-like causeway connecting the island of Pharos to mainland Alexandria.

Its name is based on the Greek terms of measurement: hepta meaning seven and stadion, which is a measure of length of roughly 180 meters.

Since its construction would seperate the Grand Port to the east and the Port of Eunostos to the west, it was designed with channels at each end. These openings allowed passage from one port to the other.

Along with creating seperate harbors for the commercial and military shipping, the causeway served as a main aqueduct for the island's inhabitants.

Its presence also helped protect the island its ports from rough wind and sea currents.

At the end of antiquity, the Heptastadion disappeared under layers of slit and soil, which formed an important sedimentary deposit.

While the Serapeion was the most celebrated of the temples in Alexandria, many other temples were built within the city. Most of these structures have been completely erased over time, and there is no way to discern how many existed. However, research of ancient papyri offer tantalizing hints as to the possible location of at least some of the temples.

Both papyri and coins reveal evidence of many temples built for the gods. Poseidon, the god of the sea, likely had an edifice in his honor west of this island, as well as on the main land. This temple next to you is dedicated to Iset Pharia, the divine protector of the lighthouse. This location hosted annual celebrations in the month of April known as the Sacrum Pharia, in connection to the lighthouse. In her incarnation as Iset Fortuna, the goddess carries a rudder and a cornucopia, both symbols of good luck for navigators.

Considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Lighthouse of Alexandria was a source of great pride for the inhabitants of the city. Construction began under Ptolemy I's reign and lasted fifteen years. It was completed during his son's rule. Once completed the lighthouse was dedicated to the gods, for the salvation of those who sail the sea.

Built on the island of Pharos, the stone structure was three tiers set on top of one another in a step formation. The second floor consisted of an octagonal tower and the top floor was a cylindrical tower topped by a statue. The interior provided space for staff rooms and a ramp, which allowed the transport of fuel to the upper floors.

Essential to safe navigation through the rifts and shallow waters, the Pharos was a functioning lighthouse, with a beam reported visibl 50 kilometers away. It's unclear what kind of fuel was used, or how much. Any other details of how the light worked remain a mystery.

For several centuries the Pharos was one of the highest monuments ever built by man. It measured roughly 110 meters in height, compared to the Pyramid of Giza which was 140 meters tall. Gradually the structure was eroded by earthquakes, and then completely destroyed in 1480 CE when a fort was built over it. Archaeological excavations on the seabed have uncovered many blocks from the ancient building.

The Paneion

Learn abouit the Paneion of Alexandria.

The Paneion was a temple built in honor of the god Pan, divinity of nature. This Greek god, often represented as a half-man, half-goat with a beard, horns and goat's hooves, was considered the protector of shepherds and herds.

Pan's attribute was his namesake musical instrument: the pan flute. His temples were usually located in caves and on high mountains, and were frequented by shepherds. It is likely that Mediterranean cults adopted the imagery of Pan to symbolize the Christian devil.

To give proper honor to the god, Alexandrians built an artificial hill upon which they housed his temple, to compensate for the flat relief of the city. The artificial mound had the shape of a spinning top or a pine cone, which was accessed by a spiral staircase. The top had a panoramic view of the entire city. Only such heights would be fitting for a mountain god.

The Hippodrome of Alexandria

Learn about the events held at the hippodrome.

The main hippodrome of the city was called the Lageion, in honor of Lagos, the ancestor of the Ptolemies.

Alexandrians were great lovers of horse racing. They were fascinated by the rivalry of these races, the agôn as it was said at that time, that every competition brought.

It was a struggle for glory.

The most important chariot race was the tethrippon. Using four horses, with the quickest harnessed to the front right, the charioteer would race for twelve laps, with sharp turns at either end of the hippodrome. The victors were crowned with garlands of olive and received prize money, but the most sought-after reward was to be acelaimed by the works of poets such as Kallimachos and Pindar.

“Ye hymns that rule the lyre! What god, what hero, aye, and what man shall we loudly praise? Verily Zeus is the lord of Pisa; and Heracles established the Olympic festival, [...) while Thêrôn must be proclaimed by reason of his victorious chariot with its four horses, Thêrôn who is just in his regard for guests, and who is the bulwark of Acragas, the choicest flower of an auspicious line of sires, whose city towers on high, (...) bringing wealth and glory to crown their native merits.”

Daily Life

Osiris, The First Mummy

The oldest mummies recovered date from the Old Kingdom, though Egyptologists believe that mummification was in use much earlier than that.

At first, the body was mummified through environmental desiccation, by leveraging the dryness of the environment and the heat of the climate.

Earty experimentations in mummification were conducted with the use of resin made from tree sap. Strips of linen were only used on some superficial parts of the epidermis of the hands, or jaw.

Ideologically, the will to preserve the body is not explained in any way until 3600 BCE. This is when the Egyptian belief that the body housed the soul was finally documented for modern Egyptologists to eventually decipher. Itwas not until the arrival of the myth of Osiris in the Egyptian religion, around the 5th Dynasty, that mummification was thoroughly conceptualized. The practice was thereafter grounded in both a mythological and ideological point of view.

Osiris was mainly known as the god of the dead, and the god of resurrection. The most well-known genesis myth concerning Osiris is that of his dismemberment.

It is Plutarch who gives the most simplified and complete summary of the story. Within Egyptian mythology, Osiris represented the first king to rule Egypt. Jealous of his power, his brother Seth attempted to usurp his throne. After several unsuccessful attempts, Seth succeeded in killing his brother by dismembering him, and scattering the pieces of his body all over Egypt. Iset, the Great of Magic, traveled all over Egypt in search of the pieces of her husband's body. After a long search, she recovered all the pieces, save for his manhood, as it was eaten by a fish.

Iset then reassembled the body of her husband by binding it together with strips of linen. Aided by her sister Nephthys, another powerful magician, they gave Osiris the breath of life. This not only brought him back from the dead, but also allowed him to recover his virility long enough to impregnate Iset, thus insuring his succession before, once more, dying. Thus, Horus was born.

The ritual used to bring Osiris back to life essentially depicts how he became the first mummy. It is why, on the sarcophagi of kings, we often find Iset and Nephthys represented as the magicians who restore life to the deceased.

Mummies of Ancient Egypt

The Importance of Mummies

Amulets & Rituals

Ancient Egyptians believed the world was a chaotic place, filled with supernatural forces. They knew that art and words gave life and power to things.

Carved with images from hieroglyphs or in the shapes of gods, amulets were highly personal objects that warded off dangers and disease while attracting success.

Some amulets were temporary, intended to solve a specific problem, while others were meant to be worn forever into the afterlife.

Priests would infuse amulets with magical energy during religious ceremonies, imbuing them with protective magic to safeguard against supernatural powers. The wealthiest of Egyptians could obtain a divinely ordained pendant, in which was hidden a magic formula inscribed on a piece of papyrus. It would act as a unique spell tailored to the owner.

Religion was so important to ancient Egyptians that it permeated every aspect of their daily lives. Since water was the source of life and had the symbolism of purifying the body and the soul, all daily routines began with ablutions. Personal prayers to the gods were sometimes written or spoken, with family prayers passed down through generations.

There was a complete calendar of each of the religious days, both good and bad, illustrating the appropriate daily rituals. Along with wine, milk and ointments, offerings to the gods consisted of small amulets to life-size statues and family shrines. During the Greco-Roman period offerings to the gods consisted of mummified animals. Cats for Bastet, dogs for Anubis, and birds for Thoth.

Deemed messengers of the gods, oracles offered guidance and judgment for all Egyptians, regardless of status. Crucial advice was offered on everything from day-to-day farming management to a pharaoh's decision on whether to start a war. Oracles were often used to decide legal issues. If the accused refused the judgment of the god, another god could be consulted in hopes of a more favorable reply.

Itwas oracles that guided the Greek sailor Battos to the coast of Libya where he founded a colony known as Cyrene. During Alexander the Great's campaign to conquer Persia, he consulted the oracle at the temple of Ammon within the oasis of Siwa, and was subsequently ordained a divine being.

Temples & Rituals of Ancient Egypt

Temples And Priests

Building Ancient Egypt

Workers & Transport

Agriculture & Seasons

Ancient Egyptian Cultivation

Domesticated Animals of Ancient Egypt

Agriculture and domesticated livestock were introduced 6000 years ago. Archaeologists have found traces of cattle, donkeys, pigs and dogs. Dromedary are thought to have been introduced during the Persian invasion.

Pets were deeply cherished in ancient Egypt. Many illustrations of children often include a pet in the depiction.

One of ancient Egypt's most iconic animals, the cat, wasn't adopted into their daily Life until the Middle Kingdom. Since they were so highly capable of killing snakes and rodents, cats were present throughout every period. However, they only became pets sometime during the Middle Kingdom. Prince Thutmose, son of Amenhotep III, had his cat Ta-miu laid to rest in its own sarcophagi.

The earliest reference to dogs dates back to 5000 BCE. They were popular pets, as they helped hunters and protected herds. They were closely linked to Anubis, the jackal-headed god. Baboons, monkeys and even falcons were tamed as pets. Each was mummified and buried with as much ceremony as any family member.

Ancient Egyptian Medicine

Evidence of advanced medical procedures have been found on mummies, and ancient Egyptians left detailed medical writings, from diagnosis to follow-up treatment.

One of the oldest known surgical studies is the Edwin Smith Papyrus. It's one of the first documents in history that notes an association between the integrity of the brain and cognitive functions, including cases of ocular complications and paralysis following head trauma.

Vinegar-treated marble stone from Memphis was used as an anaesthetic.

Another similar document, the Ebers Medical Papyrus is over 20 meters long and 30 centimeters wide. It details treatments of forty-eight surgical cases and contains 877 paragraphs describing various diseases. Alongside accurate and factual scientific approaches, the papyrus has more than 700 magic formulas and incantations to ward off demons and disease. This demonstrates how ancient Egyptians believed in a harmonious balance between religion and science.

Remedies were considered as medicine, and carried by doctors and priests. Village doctors often had another job, alongside their medical duties and the preparation of medicines. A cure for blindness was made of fermented honey, ochre and kohl. The science behind it was that honey functioned as an antiseptic and antibacterial, while ochre would reduce the swelling. All of their knowledge did not always suffice. Ramses II died of an infection caused by an abscessed tooth.

Leather & Linen in Ancient Egypt

Tanning, a process which dates from prehistoric times, was present although not highly valued in Egypt due to the heat.

Leather was reserved mainly for things such as sandals, leather bags, dagger sheaths, quivers, and other similar items.

Leopard hides, unlike regular leather, were highly valued and usually worn by priests.

Valued for its coolness and freshness in hot weather, linen was the fiber most commontly used for fabrics and textiles. It was produced from flax, which was plentiful in Egypt. Fibers were usually dyed before weaving. While color was used in the production of textiles, dyes weren't commonly used for clothing and most Egyptians wore white. The color represented spiritual purity, a goal to reach for every day of one's mortal life.

Various shades were achieved using woad, a dye produced from the leaves of Isatis Tinctoria. The plant was cultivated for this purpose within the Nile Delta, and allowed for the creation of various colors. For example, different maceration times of the leaves would result in colors ranging from red to green, while adding in limestone shifted it to blue. During the Greco-Roman period other ingredients were found, resulting in a wider range of colors.

(Behind the Scenes) This area's style is strongly influenced by the dye baths and tanneries of modern day Fes, in Morocco. This helped Ubisoft envision what such locations might have been like in ancient Egypt. While this tannery is within the city walls, back then they were often found outside the city boundaries. The tanner's trade was considered off-putting by the Greeks, as all these operations resulted in noxious smells.

Ancient Egyptian Fashions

Artisans of Ancient Egypt

Evolution of Pottery in Ancient Egypt

The Egyptian Household

Beer & Bread

Wine in Ancient Egypt

When the god Horus lost his eye in a war with Set, the ancient Egyptians believe the eye turned into a vine, and the vine's tears became wine.

Early texts dating back to 3150 BCE contain the hieroglyph for wine.

Regarded as extremely valuable, wine was highly sought after by the elite. It was also an essential part of many religious ceremonies.

A millennia-old tradition, grape cultivation and wine production was regimented in the way typical of ancient Egyptian bureaucracy. Egyptians kept careful records of winemakers, which they clearly identified on labels. Every land owner with a modicum of self-respect usually kept a vineyard. This held particularly true in the regions of the Faiyum and the Nile Delta.

Documentation shows that only certain craftsfolk were allowed to provide the containers required to store and transport wine. That and rigorous quality control checks established for every step of wine production shows that ancient Egypttians knew that the quality and longevity of wine could easily be affected by any number of variables, which they paid careful attention to.

Egyptians had different kinds of wines, most of which ranged in quality from good to very good. The sweet shedeh, to which honey had been added. The soft nedjem, obtained by drying the grapes in the sun. The maa, reserved for religious cerimonies. And finally there was the paour, the mediocre-rated wine, resulting from the second pressing of grapes and reserved for a less discerning palate.

Oil in Ancient Egypt

(Behind the Scenes)

Castor, sesame and moringa were the source of the most common oils in Ancient Egypt.

Oil was used for various purposes: cosmetics, medical treatments, nutrition, perfume, athletics, and rituals, to name a few.

The team decided to use oil as an explosive to add more gameplay opportunities for the player.

Ancient Egyptians originally used castor oil in wick lamps, but also for cosmetics, such as facial and hair treatments. There is mention in some papyrus of castor oil being prescribed to treat constipation, and help pregnant women. Castor beans were found in ancient Egyptian tombs as early as 4000 BCE. Castor oil was made by pressing the beans from the plant of the same name.

Olive trees were present though scarce in ancient Egypt's earty history, and olives were mostly imported from Syria and Palestine. Their use and cultivation remained uncommon untilthe mass arrival of Greek settlers during the reign of the Ptolemies, when demand increased sharply. Olive trees were normally found in the region of the Faiyum and the lands surrounding Alexandria.

Romans

Roman Military Equipment

The strength of Rome was directly dependent on its military supremacy, and fundamentally militaristic society.

Regular citizens, comprised mostly of farmers and herders, joined to protect their land and families.

In return for their service, members of this civic army were allowed to vote.

Trained to be highly disciplined and obedient to superior officers, citizen-soldiers developed a deep sense of loyalty to their city.

The quality of the armor of a Roman foot soldier was intrinsically linked to his social status and wealth. Chainmail was the most commontly used type of armor. Scale armor, made famous in today's media, came into use after Caesar's time. Foot soldiers carried large and oblong shields, while the cavalry used smaller ones of Greek origin. Soldiers were expected to carry their own kit, including the tools required for the construction of forts and tents.

Roman soldiers used the same types of weapons. The stomach and face were the most targeted parts of the body. As such, a legionary was equipped with two close-combat weapons: a dagger and a short sword known as a gladius. One of the most ingenicus Roman weapons was the javelin. Its pyramid-shaped tip pierced the body, while its iron shank was designed to break upon impact, stopping the enemy from throwing it back.

During their conquests the Romans regularly transformed enemy technologies to add to their own formidable arsenal. After capturing a Carthaginian vessel, the Romans adopted its better features and constructed a superior fleet of ships. Adapting heavy artillery designs from Greek modeis aided the Romans in building catapults and ballistae. The latter became an iconic symbol of Roman warfare.

Roman Forts

The size of a Roman military camp, known as a castrum, varied significantly depending on how many soldiers it needed to accommodate. However, they all shared common characteristics in design and construction, such as this fort before you, located in Cape Chersonesos.

Rectangular in shape, the forts were heavily fortified by ramparts and a ditch system. The walls were reinforced with parapets, essentially an extension at the roofline which allowed a protective barrier for patrolling soldiers. Depending on the availability of materials, some forts were built with stone, timbers, stacked turf and, particularly in the eastern part of the Empire, baked brick.

Access doors on all four sides were each flanked by guard towers. The commanding officer was positioned in the middle of the camp, giving him a clear view of the troops and the main gate.

Along with sleeping barracks for the soldiers, the fort also had a granary that was expected to hold rations for a year or longer. To ensure the health of the soldiers, every camp was equipped with medical staff and a hospital. A clean water supply with conduits for a bathhouse and latrines was included in the construction of every fort.

The Forts of Cyrenaica

Cyrenaica was a Libyan region under Roman control, gifted to Rome by one of Cleopatra's ancestors.

The remains and foundations of ancient fortifications were discovered in the 19th century in the south-west of Cyrenaica, as well as a Roman garrison dating back to the first century CE.

Evidence shows that these forts were of Libyan origin, rebuilt and modified by Roman engineers when Cyrenaica was part of the Empire.

(Behind the Scenes) Stone was the most commontly used material to build forts in Egypt and Cyrenaica. Though no real proof of a fortress similar to the one before you has been uncovered in that region, the team chose to add it as a worthy and awe-inspiring end of game challenge for the player.

(Behind the Scenes) The forts of Cyrenaica were intended to prevent invaders from gaining access to the main route that lead to the country's five most important cities. These forts were built close to coastal plains and deserts for added defense. Three of these cities were recreated by the team: Balagrae, Apollonia and Cyrene. Had it existed, the fort before you would have protected the road leading to Balagrae.

Other than reference to an attack around 404 CE and a military reorganization by Emperor Justinian during the 6th century CE, we still know little of the Roman military presence in Cyrenaica.

Roman Aqueducts

Water management was taken seriously by the Romans. Cyrenaica benefited greatly from Roman administration, with the construction of aqueducts and canals.

The source of water varied depending on the location.

Many aqueducts were built at the foot of the mountains, offering greater flow from the melting snow.

The ability to transport water over a greater distance increased agricultural production. Some aqueducts were reported to be over 7 kilometers in length. Where the Greeks of Libya originally focused mainly on olive trees and figs, which required less water, the advent of Roman aqueducts allowed for a far greater crop diversity. Every farm's water use was carefully scheduled.

The engineering methods used to create aqueducts were constantly reviewed, with a clear focus on exploiting the local environment. Materials, water usage, cleaning regulations and a deep understanding of how to exploit gravity itself were all important concerns. Several fortresses were built to protect the aqueducts, basins and cisterns.

Additional water was collected with wells and cisterns, but aqueducts were the main supply of fresh water. The water was distributed based on the collective needs of the city, before the private needs of an individual.

Almost all aqueducts ended in a fountain where the water circulated to clean the streets, and supply bathhouses and latrines, thus improving the cleanliness of Cyrenaica's cities.

Crucifixion

In terms of the severity of Roman justice, crucifixion was at the top of the list of corporal punishment, followed by death by fire and decapitation. The upper class considered crucifixion unworthy of their position. Those lucky enough to have Roman citizenship were also exempt from such treatment.

Easily accessible, crucifixions were popular entertainment among the citizenry. Unlike throwing victims to wild animals, which required an arena, crucifixions did not require any particular setting.

Those subjected to crucifixion were almost always slaves, traitors and lower class citizens. Roman deserters were crucified because the betrayal of the soldiers was perceived as endangering the lives of Roman citizens.

In 71 BCE, a major slave uprising in Italia was repressed by the Roman army. This resulted in the crucifixion of 6000 men including their leader, a slave and former gladiator known as Spartacus.

Characters

Image	Name	Description
	Bayek of Siwa	Medjay. Husband to Aya of Alexandria.
	Aya of Alexandria	Trained as a medjay. Wife to Bayek of Siwa.
	Julius Caesar	Roman politician and general.
	Cleopatra VII Philopator	Descendant of Alexander the Great's general, Ptolemy I Soter. Queen of Egypt.
	William Miles	Modern day mentor. Father of Desmond Miles.
	Layla Hassan	Technical engineer. Former employee of Abstergo Industries.
	Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator	Brother-husband of Cleopatra VII Philopator. Pharaoh of Egypt.
	Khemu of Siwa	Son of Aya and Bayek.
	Shadya of Euhemeria	Egyptian. Daughter to Hotephres and Khenut.
	Reda the Merchant	Egyptian. Nomadic merchant.
	Hasina of Yamu	Daughter of Menehet, an old friend of Bayek.
	Actor	One of the famed actors of ancient Egypt, in costume.
	Egyptian Woman	Wearing clothing typical of the common Egyptian folk of the era.
	Egyptian Nobleman	Wearing clothing typical of the nobility of Ancient Egypt.
	Egyptian Noblewoman	Wearing clothing typical of the nobility of Ancient Egypt.
	Roman Soldier	Wearing clothing typical of Roman soldiers of the era.
	Greek Nobleman	Wearing clothing typical of the Greek nobility of the era.
	Greek Noblewoman	Wearing clothing typical of the Greek nobility of the era.
	Greek Man	Wearing clothing typical of the common Greek folk of the era.
	Greek Woman	Wearing clothing typical of the common Greek folk of the era.
	Ptolemaic Soldier	Wearing clothing typical of Egyptian soldiers of the era.
	Bayek with Egyptian Hedj	Wearing hedj clothing, a more distinguished though still practical outfit. Hedj means "white".
	Bayek with Egyptian Irtyu	Wearing irtyu clothing, favored by the nobles. Irtyu means "blue".
	Bayek with Egyptian Narok	Wearing the robe of an elder Maasai warrior.
	Bayek as a Persian Commander	Purple is the color of leaders, feared by their enemies.

Timeline

Gallery

Discovery Tour Ancient Egypt

Discovery Tour Ancient Egypt

File:Assassin’s Creed Origins The Discovery Tour - Launch Trailer

References

↑ This Month in Assassin's Creed: Origins – February

zh:发现之旅：古埃及 es:Modo Descubrimiento

[ACO-1] This Month in Assassin's Creed: Origins – February

[1]

@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 {{Working Revamp|XOdeyssusx}}
 {{Youmay|the Discovery Tour: Ancient Egypt|[[Discovery Tour: Ancient Greece]]}}
-{{Stub}}
+{{Imageneed}}
 [[File:ACO_Discovery_Tour_Banner.png|thumb|250px|Promotional banner]]
 '''Discovery Tour: Ancient Egypt''' is an educational mode for ''[[Assassin's Creed: Origins]]''.
@@ Line 276: / Line 276: @@
 ====The Faiyum====
 '''Learn more about the geography and importance of the Faiyum.'''
 <tabber>
 |-|The Oasis=
@@ Line 298: / Line 299: @@
 {{-}}
 |-|Amenemhat III's Pyramid=
 [[File:DT - Hawara Labyrinth.png|thumb|250px|Hawara labyrinth]]
@@ Line 325: / Line 327: @@
 {{-}}
 |-|Town of Sobek=
 [[File:DT_-_Town_of_Sobek.jpg|thumb|250px|Stele of Aamerout worshipping the crocodile god Sobek]]
@@ Line 382: / Line 385: @@
 {{-}}
 </tabber>
@@ Line 394: / Line 398: @@
 |-|Early Organization=
+[[File:DTAE_Auguste_Mariette.png|thumb|250px|François Auguste Ferdinand Mariette, Egyptologist]]
 A major step in conserving Egypt's heritage was taken in 1858, when the {{Wiki|Sa'id of Egypt|Viceroy of Egypt}} created the {{Wiki|Supreme Council of Antiquities|Antiquities Service}}.
@@ Line 399: / Line 404: @@
 Aware of the necessity of keeping unearthed artifacts in Egypt, Mariette requested a museum be created for that purpose in 1858. This museum was the ancestor of the {{Wiki|Egyptian Museum|Egyptian Museum}}.
+{{-}}
 |-|The Dawn of Scientific Archeology=
+[[File:DTAE_Gaston_Maspero.png|thumb|250px|Portrait of Gaston Maspero]]
 [[Gaston Maspero]], Mariette's successor expanded and reorganized the Antiquities Service, and instigated laws regulating the export of artifacts.
@@ Line 406: / Line 414: @@
 As of the mid-19th century, Egyptology was fast becoming a recognized discipline within both private institutions and learned societies.
+{{-}}
 |-|A Unique Contribution=
@@ Line 438: / Line 448: @@
 ====Natron====
+'''Learn about the uses of natron, and how it was mined and farmed in ancient Egypt.'''
 <tabber>
 |-|An Ancient Salt=
@@ Line 451: / Line 463: @@
 |-|Inspiration=
+[[File:ACO_Natron_Mine_-_Concept_Art.png|thumb|250px|Natron mines]]
 (Behind the Scenes)
 Both techniques are still used today, and inspired the team in their recreation of the mines located in the mountains northwest of Memphis.
+{{-}}
 </tabber>
 ====Fauna of Ancient Egypt====
+'''Learn about the fauna of ancient Egypt.'''
 <tabber>
 |-|The Importance of Animals=
@@ Line 462: / Line 480: @@
 While the variety of wildlife served as a reliable food source, it also influenced both culture and mythology.
 |-|Wildlife=
 Egypt's terrain allowed for a diverse range of animals, including panthers, rhinoceroses, elephants and many variations of antelopes.
 |-|Lords of the Nile=
 The Nile was home to many species of fish, along with hippopotami and crocodiles.
 |-|Birds Everywhere=
 The wide variety of birds that populated the river banks, from raptors and waterfowl to songbirds, were all catalogued within Egyptian hieroglyphic signs.
 Encounters with reptiles and insects, such as cobras, scorpions and scarabs, influenced hieroglyphs and art.
 |-|Lions=
 While all animals had sacred meanings, lions in particular represented power and royalty to ancient Egyptians. They were so prized by pharaohs that they were hunted to extinction within Egypt.
 </tabber>
 ====Flora of Ancient Egypt====
+'''Learn about the flora of ancient Egypt.'''
 <tabber>
 |-|A Wide Variety of Plants=
@@ Line 482: / Line 507: @@
 The Nile's consistent seasons allowed Egypt to sustain itself for centuries.
 |-|Papyrus=
 Possibly the most useful of the plants was the papyrus. This tall sedge plant grew in abundance along the water's edge of the Nile.
@@ Line 488: / Line 514: @@
 Papyriform boats made from the plant are seen in paintings and reliefs, and were used in ritualistic ceremonies.
 |-|Fruit Trees=
 There were many types of trees along the river Nile, such as the date palm, carob and tamarisk.
@@ Line 494: / Line 521: @@
 Mango cultivation was the result of a late import from Asia during the Middle Ages.
 |-|Embodiments of Divinity=
 Some trees were associated with gods, such as the acacia with Horus.
@@ Line 500: / Line 528: @@
 The sycamore was connected with the goddess Iset, patron of the Ritual of Life.
 </tabber>
 ====Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs====
+'''Learn about hieroglyphs, how they evolved through time, and what they can teach us anbout ancient Egyptian culture.'''
+<tabber>
+|-|The Different Scripts=
+Hieroglyphics were used as sacred writing, appearing on monuments, statues and sacred papyrus texts. The earliest symbols that resemble hieroglyphs were on pottery dating back to 4000 BCE.
+This stylized form of signs and drawings was the only writing used from its ancient origins to the end of pharaonic history.
+Ancient Egyptians referred to hieroglyphs as the Writing of the Gods.
+|-|A Difficult Language=
+Considered a difficult language, it was intended for pharaohs, nobility and priests, and meant to be used in ceremonies, within tombs and for government records.
+Since few Egyptians were able to read the ancient hieroglyphs, the mythological aura around the language was persistent even in their own culture.
+|-|Insight Into Egyptian Culture=
+[[File:ACO_Tomb_of_Nakht_-_Agricultural_Scenes.png|thumb|250px|Agricultural Scenes, {{Wiki|TT52|Tomb}} of {{Wiki|Nahkt}}]]
+The structure of hieroglyphs offers insight into Egyptian culture, not just in what the translations say, but in the structure of the symnbols themselves.
+They were found on tomb walls, on sarcophagi, on statues and on pottery, and were meticulously recorded in countless ancient papyri.
+|-|Spells & Offerings=
+In many temples, priests would perform rituals and daily offerings. These were accompanied by hieroglyphs used as spells.
+In tomb paintings, the hieroglyphs are represented with formulas to recite. These spoken words were meant to be spells which would allow the deceased to benefit from the offerings for all eternity.
+Spells and offerings were also written for the living, to enhance medicines and cure illnesses.
+|-|The Book of the Dead=
+The most famous of ancient Egyptian documents is the [[Book of the Dead]].
+Written in hieroglyphs and hieratic texts, it depicts important spells and rituals.
+These spells were intended to ensure a smooth transition from life to death, and allow the deceased to safely navigate the perils of the afterlife.
+|-|Reading Hieroglyphics=
+Even after it was deciphered, the reading of hieroglyphics remained difficult at times due to the many directions in which they can be read.
+Depending on the orientation of the signs, hieroglyphics can be read left to right, right to left, horizontally or vertically, though never bottom to top.
+|-|Reading Directions=
+A clue on which way to read is to first notice which direction the figurative signs are facing. If a pictogram is looking to the right then the reader is meant to start from the right and read towards the figure.
+Column text on a papyrus begins from the right, then goes top to bottom for each column.
+|-|Writing With Hieroglyphics=
+Text written on tomb walls resembles the structure of a page from a comic book.
+The text can be placed in front, behind or above the character, and its symbols looks in the same direcftion as the character.
+Another clue is that the name of a god, or hieroglyphs meaning gods or kings, are always written before the descriptive text.
+|-|Use of Symbols=
+Compared to alphabetical languages, Egyptian hieroglyphs have more symbols.
+Confronted with the absence of vowels, the Egyptians invented a category of signs. When placed at the end of words, these signs help inform its meaning.
+For instance, a drawing of a lion will refer to a lion, and also relate to the abstract concept of a lion as something dangerous or powerful.
+|-|The Number of Hieroglyphs=
+Middle Egyptian hieroglyphs contained a little more than 700 signs. By the end of the Greco-Roman period there was 10 000 signs.
+Egyptologist Sir {{Wiki|Alan Gardiner}} created a list classifying common hierogylphic signs and their variants.
+|-|The Egyptian Language=
+Ancient Egyptian languages have many similarities with Asian and African languages. They have evolved in similar ways to the various forms of written Egyptian.
+These languages belong to the Chamito-Semitic group. There were five clear evolutions in the Egyptian language, each with their own distinctive structure. These languages are known as Old Egyptian, Middle Egyptian, Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic.
+Coptic is the only living language that allows linguists to define the vowel structure and to distinguish different dialects.
+|-|Recreating the Egyptian Language=
+(Behind the Scenes)
+While hierogylphs and hieratic script give us an idea as to how the ancient Egyptian language was structured and written, the way it was spoken is still up for debate.
+The team opted for English as the spoken language, with the characters using ancient Egyptian and Greek words and accents.
+The language that is spoken in the background by the crowds is largely based on Sir Alan Gardiner's Egyptian Grammar.
+To help resurrect a dead language, we consulted Egyptologists and dialogue coaches to establish our target sound, and cast actors with Arabic, Hebraic and African backgrounds to bring the game to life.
+|-|Passage Into History=
+After Alexander the Great's arrival in Egypt and the establishment of his reign, Greek became the language used by the governing bodies.
+The inability to read hieroglyphs caused resentment among the Greek population. It's from this tension that the Rosetta Stone was created.
+|-|The spread of Christianity ended pharaonic culture and resulted in the destruction of its pagan monuments.
+This also marked the end of hieroglyphic writing and understanding.
+</tabber>
 ====Jean-François Champollion====
+'''Learn how the hieroglyphs were identified and deciphered.'''
+<tabber>
+|-|Lost Knowledge=
+|-|The Rosetta Stone=
+|-|Deciphering the Rosetta Stone=
+|-|Complex Writing=
+|-|The First Clue=
+|-|Phonetic Similarities=
+|-|A Replicable Method=
+|-|The Coptic Language=
+</tabber>
 ====The Founding of Cyrene====
@@ Line 517: / Line 658: @@
 [[Cyrene]]'s population quickly grew, spreading out across the terraces of the plateau, making it the first and largest of the five colonies.
 {{-}}
 |-|Cyrene=
 [[File:DT - Arcesilaus Cup.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Arcesilaus II of Cyrene|Arcesilaus II]], king of [[Cyrene]], supervising the weighing and storage of [[silphium]].]]
@@ Line 525: / Line 668: @@
 A series of kings reigned over the city in the first two centuries. However, rebellion eventually ended the monarchy and henceforth, the city was governed by the aristocracy.
 {{-}}
 |-|Cyrene's Key Features=
 [[File:DT - Agora of Cyrene.png|thumb|250px|Agora of Cyrene]]
@@ Line 533: / Line 678: @@
 A fortification wall was added around the harbor at the end of the 2nd century CE. As the city grew, more buildings were constructed beyond the walls.
 {{-}}
 |-|An Economic Powerhouse=
 [[File:DT_-_Aristippos.jpg|thumb|250px|Two-faced bust, likely Aristippus of Cyrene and his daughter, Arete]]
@@ Line 542: / Line 689: @@
 Some of the great minds in ancient math, astronomy and geography were born or established in the various schools of the city, which included an institute of philosophy founded by [[Aristippos]], a pupil of [[Sokrates|Socrates]].
 {{-}}
 |-|The Fall of Cyrene=
 [[File:DT - Cyrene statue.jpg|thumb|150px|Statue of a draped woman, acephalous]]
@@ Line 550: / Line 699: @@
 It was completely abandoned in 365 CE.
 {{-}}
 |-|Cyrene & Apollonia=
 [[File:DT - Cyrene & Apollonia.png|thumb|250px|Apollonia]]
@@ Line 556: / Line 707: @@
 Along with a lighthouse, the port was later equipped with quays and warehouses to accommodate the increased shipping traffic.
 {{-}}
 |-|Apollonia's Fate=
 [[File:DT_-_Apollonia_ruins.jpg|thumb|250px|Apollonia Ruins On Landscape Against Cloudy Sky]]
@@ Line 562: / Line 715: @@
 A number of earthquakes gradually shifted the city causing many of its original structures to sink. Some of its ruins can still be seen underwater.
 {{-}}
 </tabber>
 ====The Agora & Thermal Baths====
+'''Learn about the communal public spaces of Cyrene and their function within the city.'''
+<tabber>
+|-|The Agora of Cyrene=
+|-|Unnamed Statue=
+|-|Celebrating Battos=
+|-|Civic Buildings=
+|-|The Thermal Baths=
+|-|Mosaics=
+|-|Decorations=
+|-|Different Pools=
+|-|Trajan's Bath as a Reference=
+</tabber>
 ====The Temple of Zeus in Cyrene====
+'''Learn about the Temple of Zeus, in Cyrene.'''
 <tabber>
 |-|The Temple of Zeus=
@@ Line 573: / Line 752: @@
 Seventy meters long with forty-six Doric-style columns, the imposing structure was the largest Greek temple erected in Africa. It was only slightly larger than the Parthenon, and the Temple of Zeus in Olympia.
 |-|Doric Architecture=
 The exterior was designed with the decorative elements common to Doric architecture.
 The dimensions of the columns were different, giving visitors an impression of uniqueness when viewing each façade.
 |-|Corinthian Columns=
 After the temple was destroyed during the Jewish rebellion, Emperor Hadrian had it reconstructed. He chose not to rebuild the outer portico, but did restore the new Corinthian columns in marble.
 The temple was later completed under Marcus Aurelius.
 |-|Imitation of the Olympian Zeus=
 In the time of Augustus, a faithful but smaller imitation of the Olympian Zeus was used to be worshiped.
 Hadrian then installed a new 12-meter high statue matching the Zeus in Olympia. It was made of chiseled marble with the head, arms and feet carved in the round.
 |-|Using a Zeus-Ammon Statue=
 (Behind the Scenes)
@@ Line 591: / Line 774: @@
 The team elected to place a statue of Zeus-Ammon in this location, knowing that Cyrene was central to the spread of this cult in the Greek Mediterranean area.
 </tabber>
 ====Important Monuments of Cyrene====
+'''Learn about the Sanctuary of Apollo & the Amphitheater of Cyrene.'''
+<tabber>
+|-|The Sanctuary of Apollo=
+|-|Temples & Statues=
+|-|The Fountain of Apollo=
+|-|The Temple of Apollo=
+|-|The Altar=
+|-|The Apollo Citharede=
+|-|The Amphiteater of Cyrene=
+|-|The Structure of the Amphitheater
+|-|Making it Circular=
+</tabber>
 ====The Acropolis of Cyrene====
+'''Learn about the acropolis ward in the city of Cyrene.'''
 <tabber>
 |-|The Acropolis Ward=
@@ Line 601: / Line 809: @@
 At its entrance was a single door, flanked by two towers. An inscription, Legible to this day, states that the walls and the citadel were restored in the time of Augustus.
 |-|Statuette of Berenice=
-A number of statuettes have been excavated from the site, including one of Berenice, the daughter of Magus the king of Cyrene, and half-brother of Ptolemy II.
+A number of statuettes have been excavated from the site, including one of [[Berenice II of Egypt|Berenice]], the daughter of [[Magas of Cyrene|Magus]] the king of Cyrene, and half-brother of Ptolemy II.
 At the northeast tower, there is a sanctuary consisting of two small temples with a vestibule, and an altar believed to be that of Serapis and Iset.
 When the temples were excavated, archaeologists found traces of fire damage; however there are no indications as to when this fire occured.
 |-|20th Century Fortification=
 (Behind the Scenes)
@@ Line 613: / Line 823: @@
 It covered the ancient remains of nearby Roman houses entirely, and archaeologists have yet to fully excavate them.
 </tabber>
 ====The Gladiator Arena====
+'''Learn about gladiator arenas in the Roman Republic.'''
 <tabber>
 |-|A Justified Anachronism=
@@ Line 628: / Line 841: @@
 It was a spectacle of violent clashes between men and against wild beasts that lasted nearly a thousand years.
 |-|The Profession of Gladiator=
 Eventually volunteers began to enter the ring. For status and money, many of the more skilled combatants increased the quality of the entertainment. Thus, the profession of gladiator came to be.
 Bound by contract to the master of the gladiators, the fighters were fed, trained and guarded in barracks.
 |-|Different Specialties=
 Gladiators were separated into heavy and light armored fighters, each with their own set of specific armor and weapons.
 Organizers often had two audience-favored factions face each other in combat.
 |-|Rock Stars of Antiquity=
 The events were highly organized. Fights were held with a background of music, and supervised by a referee.
@@ Line 642: / Line 858: @@
 Several were released due to their performance, and gained great notoriety as celebrities.
 </tabber>
 ====Major Exports of Cyrene====
+'''Learn about the major sources of economic weath for Cyrene.'''
 <tabber>
 |-|Silphium & Poppy=
@@ Line 652: / Line 871: @@
 Information about the cultivation of silphium, however, is more accessible to us.
 |-|The Yellow Flower=
 Silphium, with its yellow flower, was considered a gift from the sun god.
@@ Line 683: / Line 903: @@
 The first attempt at this design was the pyramid of Meidum.
 |-|Evolution of the Pyramid=
 While Sneferu's monument started as a seven- stepped pyramid, it was later altered into an eight-stepped structure. The final phase of construction saw the steps filled out, and an outer casing applied to achieve a smooth surface.
 |-|The Collapse=
 The smooth dressing of the walls did not provide sufficient bonding however, and the outer casing did not rest on sound foundations. As a result, the bases of the four outer buttress walls gave way, causing the walls to slide down and collapse.
 While the Meidum pyramid was abandoned due to design flaws, it showcased other innovations that would impact all future pyramid designs.
 |-|The Cerimonial Pavement=
 Às well as the smooth sides, it was the first time a ceremonial pavement was built, Leading from the valley to the temple of the pyramid. Another innovation was that of the funerary chamber, which was no longer at the bottom of a well, but rather above ground level.
@@ Line 694: / Line 917: @@
 This change signaled the beginning of the three-bedroom system.
 </tabber>
 ====The Bent Pyramid of Dahshur====
 <tabber>
@@ Line 703: / Line 927: @@
 |-|A Design Transition=
 Though the pyramid also proved unstable and was abandoned, it marked a technical and architectural breakthrough. Heralding an important design transition, the Bent Pyramid displays a shift from the step pyramid to a functional smooth-sided pyramid.
 |-|Too Small for a Human=
 The Bent Pyramid was unique in having two separate entrances; one on the northern face and another on the western face.
 The chamber of this pyramid was too small for a human burial. It was probably meant for the burial of a statue designated to house the ka, the “vital spirit” of the deceased king.
 |-|Experimental Construction=
 With the Bent Pyramid, architects successfully experimented with a completely new idea: to build the pyramid with a core of huge stones settled on a progressive horizontal design.
@@ Line 713: / Line 939: @@
 Unfortunately, these precautions did not prevent sagging or cracks in the interior rooms of the pyramid. Sneferu abandoned the monument, and began the construction of yet another pyramid.
 </tabber>
@@ Line 723: / Line 950: @@
 The task of making the pyramid a geometrical, true flat-face pyramid brought about yet another new design concept: the use of casing blocks.
 |-|Always Aligned=
 The descending corridor of the pyramid, which opens to the north, arrives at ground level, where two almost identical spectacular chambers with high ceilings are aligned north to south, and connected by a short horizontal passage.
 In the south wall of the second chamber, accessed by a staircase, another corridor leads to the final chamber, which is built within the masonry of the pyramid itself, and aligned east to west.
 |-|Lost Annexes=
 The annexes of the Red Pyramid consist of a small funerary temple, Located to the east. A causeway presumably ran due east from the temple, but it has yet to be excavated.
 |-|Sneferu's Final Rest=
 The Red Pyramid was structurally sound, and once finished, marked a remarkable design milestone.
 Finally successful in his attempts to buitd himself a suitable funerary monument, Sneferu knew his future beyond death was assured.
 </tabber>
@@ Line 741: / Line 972: @@
 For example, Amenemhbat I built a funerary complex in Lisht, and Senwosret II selected the Illahoun site in the Faiyum. Amenemhat II and Sesostris III however, cast their favor towards Dahshur. Amenembhat III built a pyramid there as well before moving to Hawara in the Faiyum.
 |-|Smaller & Elaborate=
 The plundering of tombs in troubled times prompted the architects of the Middle Kingdom to devise increasingly complicated means of security during construction.
@@ Line 747: / Line 979: @@
 Beyond the use of blind passages and concealed trapdoors, the architects relied on a system of stone slabs which were slid into place at the end of construction. These massive stone stabs were meant to permanently block the passageways leading to the funerary chambers.
 |-|The Decline of Pyramids=
 The kings of the 13th Dynasty began building their pyramids at Mazghouna, south of Dahshur, then moved on to Faiyum and Abydos.
@@ Line 753: / Line 986: @@
 The kings of the 18th dynasty gave up the shape of the pyramid as a royal tomb entirely. They chose a mountain with a pyramidal shape in the Valley of Kings, and dug their graves there.
 |-|A Legacy=
 It was not until the Nubian pharaohs of the 25th dynasty that kings were once again buried under pyramidal tombs. In fact today, the area of ancient Nubia, modern Sudan, contains a record number of 220 known pyramids, to Egypt's 138. Despite their slow decline in use and quality, pyramids continued to fascinate all and sundry, up to the Roman era.
 They remain to this day a symbol of the religious dedication of the Pharaohs, and the grandeur of ancient Egypt.
 </tabber>
@@ Line 765: / Line 1,000: @@
 The pyramidal complexes found there were built over the span of three generations, during the reign of Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure.
 |-|An Immense Funerary Complex=
 The Giza area, now famous for its three pyramidsm is part of a wider grouping of funerary complexes. Rulers from this period generally elected to be buried in the area.
 The focal point of the entire region was the city of Memphis, chosen as the capital of Egypt at the beginning of the Old Kingdom.
 |-|A Strict Alignment=
 The placement of the Giza monuments and particularly that of the pyramids, followed a practical, yet strict alignment. First they focused on cardinal points, and then they accounted for the natural geology of the plateau.
 </tabber>
 ====The Riddles of the Sphinx====
@@ Line 792: / Line 1,031: @@
 The outside was partially covered in red granite, while the internal walls were richly decorated. This latter innovation would not catch on until the end of the 5th dynasty, when pyramid texts began to adorn the walls.
 |-|Two Sloping Passages=
 Menkaure's pyramid contains two sloping passages, both located in the northern side of the structure.
@@ Line 798: / Line 1,038: @@
 The lower passage leads to a first room, which, for the first time since the reign of Djoser, is decorated with engraved false doors.
 |-|The Pyramid Complex=
 While Menkaure's pyramid complex was unfinished at the time of his death, it was hastily, and somewhat shabbily, completed by his successor, Shepseskaf.
@@ Line 804: / Line 1,045: @@
 Of particular note, it is within Menkaure's mortuary temple that one can find the heaviest block of limestone ever used for a pyramid complex, weighing in at over 200 tons.
 |-|Menkaure's Causeway=
 Menkaure's causeway was completed in mud-brick by the king's successor, whereas the lower part was nothing more than a simple ramp.
@@ Line 810: / Line 1,052: @@
 As such, the valley temple was soon damaged and ended up being completely rebuilt during the 6th dynasty.
 |-|The Queens' Pyramids=
 Three small structures referred to as Menkaure's Queens' Pyramids, were erected along the southern side of the main pyramid. One of them was a smooth-faced pyramid, while the other two were more basic step pyramids.
 Itis difficult to assess whether the latter were designed as such or were left unfinished, with no casing to smooth out their surfaces.
 |-|A Change of Purpose=
 The easternmost pyramid was built with the traditional rooms and corridors found within a