Discovery Tour: Ancient Egypt

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Discovery Tour: Ancient Egypt is an educational mode for Assassin's Creed: Origins.

The mode was released as a downloadable add-on on 20 February 2018 and is available for free to those who own the base game, or for purchase as a stand-alone version on PC. In it, players are to free roam the game's map of ancient Egypt and learn about the kingdom's history through a series of guided tours.

Tours

Egypt

The Major Regions of Egypt	Bringer of Life, The Nile River	Deserts of Egypt	The Qattara Depression
Siwa	The Faiyum	The City of Memphis	Rediscovering Egypt
Natron	Fauna of Ancient Egypt	Flora of Ancient Egypt	Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs
Jean-François Champollion	The Founding of Cyrene	The Agora & Thermal Baths	The Temple of Zeus in Cyrene
Important Monuments of Cyrene	The Acropolis of Cyrene	The Gladiator Arena	Major Exports of Cyrene

Pyramids

The Origin of the Pyramid	The Step Pyramid Complex of Djoser	Inside Djoser's Step Pyramid	Sneferu's First Pyramid
The Bent Pyramid of Dahshur	The Red Pyramid of Dahshur	Pyramids of the Middle Kingdom	An Overview of the Gize Necropolis
The Riddles of the Sphinx	Khufu's Funerary Complex	The Secrets of the Great Pyramid	The Great Pyramid: Subterranean Chamber
The Great Pyramid of Giza: Upper Chambers	Jean-Pierre Houdin's Theories	Khafre's Funerary Complex	Menkaure's Funerary Complex

Alexandria

The Greek Pharaohs	Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt	The Siege of Alexandria	Introduction to Alexandria
Alexandria: Planning of the City	Alexandria: A Commerical Hub	Alexandria, City of Celebration	Education in Alexandria
The Great Library of Alexandria	The Mouseion of Alexandria	The Serapeion of Alexandria	The Island of Pharos
The Paneion	The Hippodrome of Alexandria

Daily Life

Osiris, The First Mummy

Understand the significance of the mummies for ancient Egyptians.

Early Natural MummiesOsirisGenesis MythOsiris, Set & IsetIset, Nephthys & HorusThe First Mummy

The oldest mummies recovered date from the Old Kingdom, though Egyptologists believe that mummification was in use much earlier than that.

At first, the body was mummified through environmental desiccation, by leveraging the dryness of the environment and the heat of the climate.

Earty experimentations in mummification were conducted with the use of resin made from tree sap. Strips of linen were only used on some superficial parts of the epidermis of the hands, or jaw.

Ideologically, the will to preserve the body is not explained in any way until 3600 BCE. This is when the Egyptian belief that the body housed the soul was finally documented for modern Egyptologists to eventually decipher. Itwas not until the arrival of the myth of Osiris in the Egyptian religion, around the 5th Dynasty, that mummification was thoroughly conceptualized. The practice was thereafter grounded in both a mythological and ideological point of view.

Osiris was mainly known as the god of the dead, and the god of resurrection. The most well-known genesis myth concerning Osiris is that of his dismemberment.

It is Plutarch who gives the most simplified and complete summary of the story. Within Egyptian mythology, Osiris represented the first king to rule Egypt. Jealous of his power, his brother Seth attempted to usurp his throne. After several unsuccessful attempts, Seth succeeded in killing his brother by dismembering him, and scattering the pieces of his body all over Egypt. Iset, the Great of Magic, traveled all over Egypt in search of the pieces of her husband's body. After a long search, she recovered all the pieces, save for his manhood, as it was eaten by a fish.

Iset then reassembled the body of her husband by binding it together with strips of linen. Aided by her sister Nephthys, another powerful magician, they gave Osiris the breath of life. This not only brought him back from the dead, but also allowed him to recover his virility long enough to impregnate Iset, thus insuring his succession before, once more, dying. Thus, Horus was born.

The ritual used to bring Osiris back to life essentially depicts how he became the first mummy. It is why, on the sarcophagi of kings, we often find Iset and Nephthys represented as the magicians who restore life to the deceased.

Mummies of Ancient Egypt

Learn about the process of mummification in Ancient Egypt.

A Pharaoh's PurificationCleaningPurifyingExtraction of the BrainEviscerationPreserving the Viscera

The mummification process used by Ancient Egyptians was highly ceremonialin nature.

The different types of mummification took into account the social Level and richness of the deceased, and even included animals.

The most expensive was that reserved for the pharaoh and the royal family, as well as some of the wealthiest members of the court.

The first step was cleaning. Once bodies arrived at the mummification site, they were placed on inclined tables while the bodily fluids drained away. They were then cleaned by priests, until they were deemed ready for the purification process.

The purification of the body began with a libation from sacred water. The priests then fumigated the body with terebinth resin. After the ritual cleansing, priests used oils, spices and all kinds of essences to further purify the body of the deceased. Finally, all body hair was meticulously removed.

Once the body was properly purified, embalmers removed the organs, following very specific procedures. First, the brain was extracted by inserting a spoon through the nostril to break the ethmoid bone. Then, using a spatula, the pieces of the brain were removed as thoroughly as possible. What matter remained was extracted after a process of liquification achieved through the use of a caustic liquid. The cranial box, once emptied, was rinsed and disinfected with palm wine, and then stuffed with strips of linen cloth and liquefied resin.

After taking care of the brain, embalmers made an incision on the left flank and carefully set aside the viscera. The inside of the body was also rinsed with palm wine. Then, the embalmers filled the belly with pure myrrh, cinnamon and other perfumes and sewed it shut. The removed viscera were washed in palm wine, and packed in crushed herbs before being placed in canopic jars.

Canopic jars were placed close to the sarcophagus, or kept in a chest nearby. At first, the viscera were wrapped in tissue and placed in the vases. As the ritual requirements became more elaborate, ointments, spices and even water and natron were added to the process.

Canopic JarsNatron SaltNatron & DesiccationPreparing the BodyLinen & Mummy WrappingsAddition of Amulets

Towards the middle of the New Kingdom, canopic jars assumed the appearance of the four sons of Horus.

They were known as the protectors of the viscera. These protectors had their own guardians, each a goddess of the dead.

Imsety, the human-headed god, protected the liver, and was protected by the goddess Iset. Hapi, the baboon-headed god, protected the lungs, and was protected by the goddess Nephthys.

Duamutef, the jackal-headed god, protected the stomach, and was protected by the goddess Neith.

And finally Kebehsenuef, the falcon-headed god, protected the intestines, and was protected by the goddess Selket.

Natron is a naturally occurring mineral found in evaporite. These sedimentary rocks are made up of mineral salts, and were generally mined from lakebeds in Egypt.

Embalmers used natron as a desiccant, to dry the flesh and stop the corpse's putrefaction process. Once the body was cleansed and eviscerated, the deceased was covered in natron for about forty days. Once desiccated, the body was prepared to be wrapped in strips of linen.

Once the body was fully desiccated by the natron treatment, embalmers oiled, painted, and sometimes even added hair extensions or a wig. They often used a henna-based antiseptic preparation to give the body a more colorful and lively appearance, while preparing it to resist molds and fungi.

Next came the phase which gave mummies their most well-known appearance: the wrapping. Originally, each part of the body was wrapped separately. Men had their arms crossed on their chests, while women had the right arm folded over their breasts, and the left arm stretched along the body. However, techniques evolved over time. Eventually the body as a whole was wrapped with limbs alongside the body, and increasingly sophisticated and different techniques of weaving flax bands were developed.

In addition to the jewelry and amulets arranged on the skin of the deceased, amulets were also carefully inserted into the weaving of the linen strips. Each amulet was linked to a myth or to an ideological belief related to rebirth.

MasksMummy FashionsCartonnage DecorationsThe Opening of The Mouth

Masks were an important part of a mummy's finery. Early wooden funeral coverings were very expensive, however, and soon replaced by masks created through a technique known as cartonnage.

Masks fashioned with this method were created by laying several layers of linen or papyrus pulp on a base made of mud or straw.

Cartonnage was used for more than funerary masks. Ornaments and the animal coffins of the Late Period were also made in such a fashion.

Cartonnage evolved to cover the entire body of the mummy during the 22nd Dynasty. The mummies were placed on a board inside a rigid envelope of cartonnage, which was laced at the back with a string. Extremely cost effective and visually pleasing, this technique was very popular through all layers of the society.

Cartonnage envelopes were usually covered with inscriptions and polychrome decorations specifying the names and titles of the deceased, scenes depicting daily life, or decorations specific to the funerary world. This was a true gift for Egyptologists eager to study the funerary rites of the ancient Egyptians.

Once the mummy was properly wrapped and adorned, the embalmers proceeded with the ceremony of the Opening of the Mouth. A vital step of the funerary process, this ceremony was meant to bring back to life the deceased themselves, or an object representing the deceased.

The Opening of The Mouth - The IngredientsThe Opening of The Mouth - The Sarcophagus

There were no less than seventy-five different stages for the Opening of the Mouth. It required the application of the same coils, ointments, spices, and perfumes used during the mummification process. Make-up was sometimes part of the process as well.

The last stage of this long ritual was the act of touching the mouth with the adze to symbolically allow the breath of life to infuse an inert body. Its performance was reserved for a very specific set of people: priests who wore the mask of the god Anubis, a close relative of the family or by the heir to the throne.

The Importance of Mummies

Understand the importance of mummies for ancient Egyptians.

Who Are The Embalmers?Secret TechniquesThe OuabetEmbalming & Social StatusSimpler Methods

The first hieroglyph for embalmer appeared in pyramid texts of the Old Kingdom.

It is likely that embalming was a trade that progressed alongside the evolution of ancient Egyptian funeral practices.

While we still know nothing of how embalming came to be a profession, we do know that embalmers had a hierarchy, and that each embalmer specialized in a specific phase of the mummification process.

The mummification techniques were jealously guarded by embalmers from generation to generation. Despite their efforts, Herodotus and Diodorus discovered their methods in late Antiquity, but historians were sceptical about the validity of the texts. It remained a mystery until two teams of modern medico-legal scientists confirmed the process in 1994, and again in 2011.

The ouabet, meaning the pure place, was where the embalmers mummified the bodies of the deceased. Until the end of the Middle Kingdom, it was located in tents at the edges of the city due to the smell of decomposition. In the New Kingdom, however, the ouabet was located within the city limits, though stillin open-air spaces. In the same way that the practices and techniques of mummification evolved, so possibly did consideration towards embalmers within ancient Egyptian society.

The pharaoh had access to the most elaborate of mummification rituals. The richer citizens of Egypt also enjoyed complex embalming options, though none of them allowed for the removal of the brain or viscera. After purifying the body, embalmers injected a liquid through the rectum, sealed it, and allowed the mixture to settle. They then plunged the body into natron for up to forty days. Once the body was dried the seal was removed, and the entrails flowed out with the injected liquid, leaving the skin and bones of the deceased to be wrapped in linen and returned to the family for burial.

The least costly embalming option was for the embalmers to simply inject a product called surmaia, and immerse the body in the natron for up to forty days before handing it over to the family. For all those who could not afford any embalming process, desert burials offered a pauper's alternative to preserve the bodies of the dead.

Mummies in Western CivilizationThe Egyptomania PhenomenonThe Desecration of MummiesThe Mummy Malediction

Egyptian civilization has always appealed to Westerners, even before the Greek and Roman invasions. As early as the Middle Ages, mummies discovered by travelers were often sent back to Europe. Curio cabinets dating from the 16th and 17th centuries usually included pharaonic artifacts in their collections.

The Egyptomania phenomenon was heralded by Napoleon Bonaparte's Egyptian campaign, which lasted from 1798 to 1802. The following years were marked by a resurgence of interest from rich enthusiasts and scholars, who exposed Egypt to the general populace. Many research societies focusing on Egyptology were founded during those years.

By 1868, mass tourism began in Egypt, under the aegis of the Cook agency. The rich would indulge in Leisure trips to Egypt, and bring back mummies. Upon their return, they would organize evenings that consisted of unpacking mummies, and removing strips of linen and amulets layer by layer. These were considered the shining cultural events of the season. The Egyptian collections of many a museum were founded as a consequence of this mass pillaging.

Thanks to those dubious parties, the fantasy of a mummy coming back to life seeking revenge on its defilers was born. The mummy malediction myth has remained steady in popular culture ever since, particularly in written media and cinema.

Amulets & Rituals

Understand how magic and religion was an essential aspect of ancient Egyptian life.

Amulets & CharmsMagical EnergyDaily Religious RitualsReligious CalendarsOraclesConsulting the Oracle

Ancient Egyptians believed the world was a chaotic place, filled with supernatural forces. They knew that art and words gave life and power to things.

Carved with images from hieroglyphs or in the shapes of gods, amulets were highly personal objects that warded off dangers and disease while attracting success.

Some amulets were temporary, intended to solve a specific problem, while others were meant to be worn forever into the afterlife.

Priests would infuse amulets with magical energy during religious ceremonies, imbuing them with protective magic to safeguard against supernatural powers. The wealthiest of Egyptians could obtain a divinely ordained pendant, in which was hidden a magic formula inscribed on a piece of papyrus. It would act as a unique spell tailored to the owner.

Religion was so important to ancient Egyptians that it permeated every aspect of their daily lives. Since water was the source of life and had the symbolism of purifying the body and the soul, all daily routines began with ablutions. Personal prayers to the gods were sometimes written or spoken, with family prayers passed down through generations.

There was a complete calendar of each of the religious days, both good and bad, illustrating the appropriate daily rituals. Along with wine, milk and ointments, offerings to the gods consisted of small amulets to life-size statues and family shrines. During the Greco-Roman period offerings to the gods consisted of mummified animals. Cats for Bastet, dogs for Anubis, and birds for Thoth.

Deemed messengers of the gods, oracles offered guidance and judgment for all Egyptians, regardless of status. Crucial advice was offered on everything from day-to-day farming management to a pharaoh's decision on whether to start a war. Oracles were often used to decide legal issues. If the accused refused the judgment of the god, another god could be consulted in hopes of a more favorable reply.

Itwas oracles that guided the Greek sailor Battos to the coast of Libya where he founded a colony known as Cyrene. During Alexander the Great's campaign to conquer Persia, he consulted the oracle at the temple of Ammon within the oasis of Siwa, and was subsequently ordained a divine being.

Temples & Rituals of Ancient Egypt

Learn about the importance of the pharaoh and of the priests in ancient rituals, and understand the influence of temples in ancient Egyptian society.

The Sacred BargeThe Travels of RaThe Destruction of MankindFestivalsLongevity of The Festivals

During rituals and festivals, the god was carried on a solar barge between the areas of a temple, or the temples of different cities.

Funerary carvings and paintings covering thousands of years as well as the Book of the Dead, depict the same ship and oar design.

Solar barges have been uncovered near or within several pharaohs' tombs.

They were intended to carry the pharaoh into the afterlife.

Ancient Egyptians believed that Ra, the sun god, traveled the skies in a boat known as the solar barge. The solar barge was believed to cross over to mythological lands.

The god Ra believed mankind was conspiring against him. He ordered Sekhmet, the lion-headed war goddess, to kill all humans. To his chagrin, Ra quickly realized that with all humans gone there would be no one left to worship him. In order to stop the rampaging Sekhmet, beer was brewed and dyed red with pomegranate juice to resemble blood. Sekhmet drank every drop of the brew she could find, eventually passing out drunk. When she awoke, she was calmer, and her lion visage had changed into Bastet. The Festival of Drunkenness was celebrated in honor of that myth.

Unlike the daily rituals that took place in the temple and were performed by priests, festivals allowed the entire population of the city to participate. Festivals helped mark the passing of the seasons in the agricultural calendar. In reflecting the cycles of life, festivals offered a sense of consistency and structure for the regular citizens, thus reinforcing the sense of order that pharaohs were to provide for the citizens of Egypt as part of their godly duties.

The importance of these festivals is demonstrated by their longevity. Records show that Osiris festivals occurred for more than 2000 years. Some festivals served to reinforce state control, and promote the king's reign. Both the Opet and Sed jubilee festivals were specifically intended to celebrate the renewal of the king's power.

Temple HierachyTemple PersonnelScribes & PriestsThree Months a YearThe Holy of Holies

The temple hierarchy consisted of high priests, several types of priests, scribes and servants. The high priest was known as the prophet. Some divinities had up to four prophets, and they were the ones to perform the most advanced and complex rituals.

Egyptian priests were not confined to solely religious tasks, and in fact had crucial roles in Egypt's administration, most of which served to reaffirm the pharaoh as the proper vessel for the gods. Their focus within the temple was centered on the proper conduct of daily divine rituals, rather than as custodians of dogma or the indoctrination of individuals.

Scribes were custodians of the sacred sciences. Some priests were associated with the funeral rites and were considered the group with medical knowledge. The servants of the ka were low-ranking priests who carried food and offerings in funerary rituals. Lector priests were distinguished by their ability to read, and their main duty was to recite specialized religious texts in both temple and funerary rituals.

Priests and all the officials who served the temple worked only three months a year, with each period separated by a quarter of inactivity, at least within the temple compund. Each outgoing group handed over the temple and their tools to the newcomers. Only the high priesthood remained in permanent office within the temple.

(Behind the Scenes) The most sacred part of the temple was referred to as djesr djesru, the “holy of holies.” The most sacred inner sanctuary was where the shrine to the temple deity was located. Only priests were allowed within. Offerings were given, and rituals unseen by even the pharaoh were performed. While the team chose to allow any character access to this space in some game temples, normally it was reserved for priests alone.

The Foundation of a TempleThe Naos

Pharaohs and their priests often chose the site of these sacred temples because of some mythological connection, or an alignament with the cardinal points and certain stars. Once selected, a foundation ritual was performed.

The pharaoh was required to complete 10 steps in the ritual, which required a mix of offerings as well as specific construction techniques.

Once the temple was complete, construction of the chamber containing the shrine, or naos, began.

The naos was where the god statue stood. The representation of the deity was usually in stone or wood and decorated with gold, silver and precious stones. Smaller temples had only one naos, while larger complexes such as the temple of Karnak had many chambers to honor gods such as Amun, Ptah, and Osiris. Each statue was believed to be a receptacle for the presence or essence of the god's ka, enabling it to take a physical form. Through the statue, the god came to the shrine to eat, drink, and communicate with the pharaoh, or with the priests standing in for the pharaoh.

Temples And Priests

Learn about the influence of temples in Egyptian societym and the role of the pharaoh and priests in ancient rituals.

Memphis & The Temple of PtahImportance of TemplesGeneral StructurePopular Festivals

From its foundation, the city of Memphis favored worship of the god Ptah.

The main temple of Ptah was known as Hut-ka-Ptah, meaning palace of the ka of Ptah.

The name of the temple, translated into Greek as Aegyptos, would eventually evolve into the modern name: Egypt.

Temples were the center of religious, political and economic life in ancient Egypt. These sacred places were viewed as the literal home of the gods and goddesses. As such, every aspect of them required care and reverence, all of which was accomplished through elaborate ritual.

Located in the center of Memphis, the temple of Ptah was the most prominent and imposing building in the city. The long walkway leading toward the temple, known as the dromos, was guarded by rows of sphinxes. The entire sacred area was designed to keep the statue of the god protected deep within the sacred enclosures that surrounded it.

The dromos opened into a courtyard, with a surrounding portico graced with columns carved to resemble palm trees. During special festivals the general population was allowed to enter this location, but under no circumstances would they be allowed into the sacred spaces beyond the courtyard.

The Alabaster Sphinx of MemphisAn Unidentified FigureA Witness of the PastThe Apis BullApis, Osorapis, Serapis

The Memphis Alabaster Sphinx was discovered in 1912, almost completely buried in water and sand.

Eight meters in height and weighing in at roughly 90 tons, it is still mounted on its original pedestal.

Though it is called the Alabaster Sphinx, it was in fact carved from common calcite rock, which is similar in appearance and texture to alabaster.

Erosion has destroyed the original engravings, making it difficult to determine when it was created. Egyptologists believe that its facial likeness resembles Amenhotep Il, and so it could have been sculpted somewhere between 1700 and 1400 BCE. Itis believed that this monument once stood outside of the temple of Ptah, and was integrated into subsequent extensions to the complex.

The size of the imposing sculpture reflects the importance it had to the temple during the New Kingdom. This sphinx is one of the few remaining artifacts from the ruins of Memphis to survive.

In Egyptian culture some animals were associated with gods, while others were considered to be Living gods. The Apis bull was believed to be a divine entity. The earliest mention of the Apis bullin ancient Egypt goes back as far as the 1st Egyptian dynasty.

Originally the symbol of fertility, the Apis bull was linked to the god Ra, with the image of the sun carried between its horns. Later it was associated with Osiris, the ruler of the underworld, thus becoming the funerary divinity Osorapis. During the 18th Dynasty in Memphis, the Apis bull's association with the city's deity earned it the title “Herald of Ptah." The Apis bull was so revered that even Alexander the Great, upon his arrival in Memphis, gave honor to Apis.

A Living GodApis Bull BurialMaintaining OrderDaily RitualsCodified PracticesSymbolic Procedures

The Apis buil lived with its harem in a sacred barn located in an enclosure in the temple of Ptah.

Each bull bore twenty-nine signs representative of it's divinity. Among them, the bull had an eagle-shaped mark on its back, a double tail hair and a scarab-shaped mark under the tongue. The signs were intended to correspond with the lunar cycle.

After its death, Egyptians would search for its reincarnated form among the livestock.

Like other living divinities, the mortal incarnation of the Apis bull was prayed to, and when it died, it was given a luxurious funeral which included mummification. Until the reign of Ramses II, the Apis bulls were buried in individual graves in Saqgara. During the 26th dynasty, the bodies of the bulls were buried in enormous stone vats in the underground corridors of the Serapeum of Memphis.

Ancient Egyptians believed that temple rituals were essential to maintain order in the cosmos, and allow communication between humans and gods. The pharaoh was required to bring offerings, as part of a twofold promise made to the gods: to remain a just ruler, and to prevent chaos from entering Egypt.

Details of the ceremonies found on temple walls provide a thorough overview of the stages of the daily ritual. Performed three times a day to mirror human meal times, each step of the highly symbolic ceremony was accompanied by specific recitations, many of which referred to mythical events.

The high priest would first awaken the sleeping god with a chant. Then the seals of the shrine's doors were broken, and the bolts drawn back. The act of swinging open the doors was a symbolic gesture, where sight was granted to the deity. The priest would then bow, and kiss the ground.

The god was then washed with incense-infused water, and its mouth rinsed with mineral salts. The cleansing was followed by adorning the statue with jewels and royal garments. The final ritual required the priest to sweep away any footprints in order to prevent evil from approaching the god.

PriesthoodThe High PriestKing-Priests of ThebesHouse of LifeTemples & EducationA Center Of Learning

Heredity was the primary source of new recruits. Rarely was an outsider allowed this position. At the top of the temple hierarchy was the high priest. Each temple dedicated to a god had at least one high priest devoted to its care and service. During the Ptolemaic dynasty, one family held the position of High Priest in Memphis for almost 300 years.

High priest candidates made their way up the ranks of the temple hierarchy. The one chosen to occupy the lofty position of high priest was usually confirmed by the pharaoh. Several of the high priests were also important officials in the government. Families sharing the highest priesthood titles tended to make many alliances, thereby gaining more land and wealth. Shifting balances of power sometimes resulted in more or less open conflicts between the priesthood and the pharaohs.

In the 21st dynasty, Thebes became the capital of an almost entirely theocratic government. The city was headed by king-priests who spoke and governed in the name of god Amun, in open opposition to the ruling pharaohs. These kings-priests caused a massive decentralization of power, known as the Third Intermediate Period.

The educational institution in ancient Egypt was known as the House of Life. Attended by the offspring of the elite and the clergy, it was a place tailored to the social status of its attendees. The eartiest references to this type of institution date back to royal decrees of the Old Kingdom.

Only two known centers have been uncovered, one in the abandoned city of Akhetaten and one at the temple of Ramses II, on the west bank of Thebes. Inscriptions uncovered in those locations mention the names and titles of people who were connected with the House of Life, such as a chief physician and many scribes. Itis presumed that by the Late Kingdom, every temple had a House of Life.

The House of Life offered training for the elite destined for occupations such as astronomers, doctors, veterinarians, diplomats, architects, translators or theologians. Some institutions focused on specific disciplines, making them a central hub for the country.

Keepers of WisdomTemple EconomyBenefactorsCenters of Power

Not limited to instruction for young students, the House of Life was a source of reference for many scholars, with rooms dedicated to papyri of many disciplines. Because papyri were preserved there, the Greco-Romans referred to the House of Life as a library.

Ancient Egyptian economy was based on an unequal system of redistribution of goods. The state of Egypt collected the crops, and the temples distributed them throughout the provinces. Since the only people capable of counting and ensuring a fair redistribution were the educated scribes, this meant that the temples played a pivotal role in this process.

There are records of pharaohs making offerings of large tracts of land and animals to temples in order to maintain their favor. Ramses III offered generous gifts to the temple of Amun in Karnak in such a manner.

Palaces, warehouses, and granaries were built inside the temple compound to better control the redistribution of goods. The size of the recorded numbers of goods combined with every other function filled by temples only serves to confirm their might as economic, religious and political centers of power within Egypt.

Building Ancient Egypt

Understand the different techniques used by ancient Egyptians to quarry stone blocks, and build their monuments.

The QuarriesLimestoneThe Open Pit QuarryCutting TechniqueAccessing Finer LimestoneSplitting Technique

Constructed with bricks made of mud, most ancient Egyptian buildings were not permanent.

Only religious temples and funerary monuments were meant to stand the ravages of time.

For these very important structures, Egyptians used limestone, sandstone, and harder materials such as granite, quartzite and travertine. These heavy stone blocks were so prized that they were often transported from quarries located hundreds of kilometers away.

Limestone was common and easy to extract from quarries on the east bank of the Nile. This particular limestone had marine fossils in it however, preventing it from being easily decorated and polished. Used as the main building material, the structure would then be finished with a finer limestone that was polished smooth, and decorated as needed. Limestone was used for the building of the first pyramids, and for most of the religious buildings of the Old and Middle Kingdoms.

Ancient Egyptians preferred to use sedimentary rock beds, or layers like sandstone and limestone, because they were often easier to extract. The common method used to extract stone was the open pit quarry. Stone cutters would find quality stone, shape and dig it out on site. Open pit quarries enabled many workers to work simultaneously on many blocks, which allowed for better productivity.

Workers would draw a large grid directly on the stone's surface, taking care to leave a space between the blocks. This allowed them to isolate the different blocks and create a trench that would make the extraction easier. Stone workers used iron chisels for hard rock, and bronze or copper tools for softer rocks such as limestone. Removing material between each block created a trench line. In some quarries, that trench was wide enough to accommodate a worker, who would then cut the block entirely on site. For harder rocks like granite, workers cut a series of holes and hammered wooden wedges into them. They then soaked the wood until it swelled and caused the rock to split.

The gallery extraction technique was used when the desired rock was buried under layers of rubble. This method was often necessary in order to find the whiter and finer limestone required for a smoother finish. The first step was for the stone workers to create an access pit that would allow them to reach the desired wall of stone. Once a wall of quality stone was exposed, workers could then cut out smaller blocks. This pit required a descending platform. Designed like a stairway, it allowed them to free multiple galleries of blocks.

To cut the stone, they created a longitudinal kerf, or slit, and then cut the rock at a 90-degree angle. The lower side was determined along the geological layers or by using a horizontal cut. Wooden wedges were inserted in the rock and hammered in. Shock waves were then generated using hammers, fracturing the blocks at the seam.

Support SectionsThe Worker's Shrine

To maintain the stability of these mining pits over the course of quarrying, workers would leave support sections of unexcavated rock.

In every quarry, dedicated shrines were established to offer protection for the workers. In particular, Serket, the scorpion goddess, was considered a very powerful deity among quarry workers. Every mine and quarry of ancient Egypt included a scorpion charmer, who was said to use magical powers to ward off the dangerous insects and keep the workers safe.

Workers & Transport

Understand who were the people involved in the creation of ancient Egyptian monuments, and understand the techniques used to quarry stone blocks and transport monuments.

Who Were The Workers?Multiple QualificationsAn Efficient AdministrationTransportation On Land

Whether workers were employed for the pyramid construction or at the quarries, the government supplied food and housing.

Workers for the pyramids and royal necropolises were housed in more permanent villages such as the famous Deir el-Medina. Quarry workers had more temporary lodgings.

Al skill levels were needed and utilized, from basic workhands to prepare the gypsum, to brick makers and sand carriers, to skilled stonemasons to shape the blocks.

Skilled architects and engineers were employed year-round, while support labor were often farmers who worked on the quarries or construction during the Nile's flood season. The basic laborers were hard-working and versatile. Many may have been farmers who joined the construction during the off-season. Hieroglyphs found in the work villages listed assigned job titles.

Archeological research shows that no food was stored or prepared on site, but instead workers received abundant rations of bread, beer and meat. These rations were taken care of by an administration outside the village. Medical treatment was also available for those who were injured.

While some quarries were closer to the Nile, others were located across the desert and required long expeditions. These expeditions were sanctioned by the state. They involved complex logistics, and required many participants. Transporting a block by land meant that workers had to overcome the weight and friction of the load. To solve this, they first dug a track in the ground. This path was sometimes reinforced with rails upon which a sled used to ferry the blocks would be pulled.

Moving Stone BlocksTransportation On WaterThe Ouadi el-Jarf PapyriStone CargoRiver Transportation

Whenever possible, blocks were toppled from a higher elevation onto the sled.

Workers then poured water onto the clay at the front of the sled, creating a slick surface to more easily move the load.

It wasn't until the New Kingdom that animals were used to tow the burden.

During flood season, the Nile was at its largest and deepest, which allowed the transportation of the heaviest and biggest loads. Quarries close to the river had troughs dug out to deliver the stones to the shoreline. Harbors and wharfs situated at the river's edge allowed the transfer of materials and supplies. Harbor warehouses accommodated additional stocks of stone so that they were available for the winter sailing season.

The Ouadi el-Jarf papyri detail a limestone load intended for the Khufu pyramid that weighed in at 70-80 tons, or thirty blocks. One papyrus is a fragment from a foreman's notes taken while working on the Great Pyramid. It details the transportation of limestone blocks from the Tura quarries to the construction site of the pyramid. The other papyri are shipping logs containing archives of the sailors assigned to sail the Red Sea and the Nile.

Stone cargo generally weighed 15 tons per boat, amounting to roughly six or seven blocks per trip. For heavier Loads such as obelisks, monolithic pillars or gigantic statues, larger boats were used. These transports are the ones typically showcased on temple walls.

River transportation was the most efficient way to ferry stone blocks between the quarry and the construction site. Blocks were transported by flotillas of several types of boats. The most detailed illustration of transport by river is a relief of Queen Hatshepsut's barge with an accompanying flotilla.

Agriculture & Seasons

Learn about the basic agricultural food production techniques, and understand how the Nile was at the center of Ancient Egypt wealth.

The Importance of AgricultureAn Agricultural RevolutionTenenet, The Goddess of BeerField ManagementSeasons

While crops were cultivated in different cases around the desert, most of the arable lands were near the Nile.

Two types of cereal grain were cultivated: barley, and an ancient wheat known as emmer.

These two key ingredients contributed in establishing bread and beer as the staple of the Egyptian diet, and the basis of its economy.

The Ptolemaic era created an agricultural revolution with the introduction of advanced agricultural techniques and new grain types such as rice, durum wheat and pearl millet. The resulting agricultural mass production greatly increased the economy of ancient Egypt. It also prompted the development of storage and transportation, allowing long-distance trade with other regions.

Both bread and beer rations were part of a system of barter payment. The state used those goods to pay wages for those who worked in the quarries and at the construction sites. Beer was so important to ancient Egyptians they had a goddess of beer brewing: Tenenet. Tenenet is seen in many paintings and sculptures with beer, and women are depicted as the primary beer makers.

In order to increase agricultural production, fertile land was divided into plots, and large agricultural villages were encouraged. The state and temples were the biggest landowners. Depending on the region, fertile land was managed by civil servants, or rented to individuals. Ancient Egyptians relied on rudimentary tools for land cultivation. Soil was broken down with hoes, and wing plows were used to make furrows.

The three seasons known as Akhet, Peret and Shemu corresponded to a specific phase of the agricultural process and the river's natural changes. Akhet, was the time of the flood, beginning with the appearance of the star Sirius in July. Peret was the time when lands were cultivated, plowed and sown. This fell between October and November. Shemu ran from May to September, and was when harvesting and taxation began.

Provider of the PeopleEgyptian Text: The Famine Stela

The pharaoh's duty was to uphold order against chaos, and provide for his people. Priests and local governors also wanted to appear as protectors of the people.

However, any variation in the Nile's seasons could cause water shortages. This had devastatingconsequences on wheat and barley crops.

The pharaoh, administrators and priests knew they needed to demonstrate their ability to prevent such a catastrophe from happening, and so they invented the story which would be inscribed upon the Famine stela.

The story begins with the pharaoh worried for his people. The Nile hasn't flooded in years and his people are starving. In search of the origins of the flooding, Djoser seeks out Khnum, the protector god of the region and the source of the drought. Djoser gives the god offerings and orders his priests to restore the temple of Khnum. These offerings please the god, and the floods are restored. This story was intended to highlight the importance of the deity in everyone's daily lives, while also demonstrating the crucial role that the priests and the king played in feeding and protecting the people of Egypt.

Ancient Egyptian Cultivation

Learn about the ancient Egyptian agricultural techniques.

Irrigation & ShadoofBringing Water to the FieldsThreshing & WinnowingRecycling ChaffTransport

The new grain types of the Ptolemaic period required a great deal of water. Farmers needed to ensure they had effective, consistent irrigation. The Nile's rising and receding waters naturally irrigated most of the crops. Areas where the Nile didn't reach, such as gardens and vegetable plots, required an irrigation tool known as the shadoof. The shadoof allowed easy transport of water from its source. It consisted of a tall wooden frame with a long pivoting pole and suspended bucket. The system could be raised and lowered with little effort.

Later a sakia, or water wheel, was invented. The sakia needed animals to turn the wheel, which rotated buckets through the water. It drew the water to an elevation of 3.5 meters, and enabled a great deal of control over the irrigation process. This improvement supplied larger areas and thus resulted in larger harvests.

The threshing process separated the grain from its husk. Workers would spread the ears on clean ground. Oxen, cows or donkeys were then guided back and forth to trample the grain. This continuous movement worked the grain loose while preventing the animals from eating it. Unwanted chaff and straw were swept away, or gathered and added to the mud used to make bricks, to make them stronger.

Winnowing was the stage where workers used wooden scoops to throw ears in the air. The wind carried off the chaff, leaving the heavier seeds to fall to the ground. This action was repeated until the undesired materials were sifted out. Grain waste was mixed with manure or other organic substances to produce brick-shaped dung toaves that could be easily burned. A standardized brick size enabled Egyptians to mass produce this byproduct, and use it as a commodity.

Transporting large amounts of grain required ships equipped to carry heavy loads. These goods were moved during the Nile's flooding season, when the river was deep enough for large ships. The transports stopped at checkpoints to accommodate customs and police controls, as well as for technical requirements and weather conditions.

Grain DistributionGranariesGrain ProcessingSand Everywhere

Having reached Alexandria's inner harbor, the wheat was unloaded under the supervision of a civil servant in charge of wheat management. Portions were distributed to Alexandria's city market, and the remaining stockpile was either exported or stored in warehouses.

Grain storage facilities were located across all of Egypt. Temples and institutions had large silos, while individual houses had storage sheds. In some houses, arched cellars were built into the foundations. These watertight chambers were accessible from the ground floor, through a trapdoor. Royal granaries acted as the storehouse and distribution centers, and managed state payments to civil servants, soldiers and the police. Though plastered on the inside, silos weren't completely sealed and so remained susceptible to mice infestations.

When the grain was ready for processing, it was poured into bowis and pounded into a coarse flour. That flour was then passed through a sieve to make it a finer quality, and further ground between stones. Ancient Egyptians did not stock flour. Instead, fresh grain was portioned out each time to produce flour as it was needed.

The sieves used by Ancient Egyptians were unable to filter out sand and stones. Grit often passed into the flour, causing long-term tooth abrasions among all classes of Egyptians.

Domesticated Animals of Ancient Egypt

Learn about the various domesticated animals of ancient Egypt.

A Very Old TraditionPetsIntroduction to CatsDogs and Family Ties

Agriculture and domesticated livestock were introduced 6000 years ago. Archaeologists have found traces of cattle, donkeys, pigs and dogs. Dromedary are thought to have been introduced during the Persian invasion.

Pets were deeply cherished in ancient Egypt. Many illustrations of children often include a pet in the depiction.

One of ancient Egypt's most iconic animals, the cat, wasn't adopted into their daily Life until the Middle Kingdom. Since they were so highly capable of killing snakes and rodents, cats were present throughout every period. However, they only became pets sometime during the Middle Kingdom. Prince Thutmose, son of Amenhotep III, had his cat Ta-miu laid to rest in its own sarcophagi.

The earliest reference to dogs dates back to 5000 BCE. They were popular pets, as they helped hunters and protected herds. They were closely linked to Anubis, the jackal-headed god. Baboons, monkeys and even falcons were tamed as pets. Each was mummified and buried with as much ceremony as any family member.

Ancient Egyptian Medicine

Learn about the balance of science and magic that was ancient Egyptian medicine.

A Blend of Science and MagicThe Ebers Medical PapyrusMedicines of the Time

Evidence of advanced medical procedures have been found on mummies, and ancient Egyptians left detailed medical writings, from diagnosis to follow-up treatment.

One of the oldest known surgical studies is the Edwin Smith Papyrus. It's one of the first documents in history that notes an association between the integrity of the brain and cognitive functions, including cases of ocular complications and paralysis following head trauma.

Vinegar-treated marble stone from Memphis was used as an anaesthetic.

Another similar document, the Ebers Medical Papyrus is over 20 meters long and 30 centimeters wide. It details treatments of forty-eight surgical cases and contains 877 paragraphs describing various diseases. Alongside accurate and factual scientific approaches, the papyrus has more than 700 magic formulas and incantations to ward off demons and disease. This demonstrates how ancient Egyptians believed in a harmonious balance between religion and science.

Remedies were considered as medicine, and carried by doctors and priests. Village doctors often had another job, alongside their medical duties and the preparation of medicines. A cure for blindness was made of fermented honey, ochre and kohl. The science behind it was that honey functioned as an antiseptic and antibacterial, while ochre would reduce the swelling. All of their knowledge did not always suffice. Ramses II died of an infection caused by an abscessed tooth.

Leather & Linen in Ancient Egypt

Learn about the uses of leather and linen in ancient Egypt.

Tanning LeatherLinen FabricDyeingThe Tanneries of Fez, Morocco

Tanning, a process which dates from prehistoric times, was present although not highly valued in Egypt due to the heat.

Leather was reserved mainly for things such as sandals, leather bags, dagger sheaths, quivers, and other similar items.

Leopard hides, unlike regular leather, were highly valued and usually worn by priests.

Valued for its coolness and freshness in hot weather, linen was the fiber most commontly used for fabrics and textiles. It was produced from flax, which was plentiful in Egypt. Fibers were usually dyed before weaving. While color was used in the production of textiles, dyes weren't commonly used for clothing and most Egyptians wore white. The color represented spiritual purity, a goal to reach for every day of one's mortal life.

Various shades were achieved using woad, a dye produced from the leaves of Isatis Tinctoria. The plant was cultivated for this purpose within the Nile Delta, and allowed for the creation of various colors. For example, different maceration times of the leaves would result in colors ranging from red to green, while adding in limestone shifted it to blue. During the Greco-Roman period other ingredients were found, resulting in a wider range of colors.

(Behind the Scenes) This area's style is strongly influenced by the dye baths and tanneries of modern day Fes, in Morocco. This helped Ubisoft envision what such locations might have been like in ancient Egypt. While this tannery is within the city walls, back then they were often found outside the city boundaries. The tanner's trade was considered off-putting by the Greeks, as all these operations resulted in noxious smells.

Ancient Egyptian Fashions

Learn about ancient Egyptian fashions.

Connecting with the PastJewelryThe Flesh of the GodsChanging FashionsClothingCosmetic

Learning what life was like for ancient Egyptians presents many differences, and yet also, surprising similarities to how people might live today. Understanding the daily lives of regular citizens so many thousands of years ago is, ultimately, what connects us as human beings.

Jewelry was a popular item among ancient Egyptians of all social standing. Both men and women wore earrings, rings and bracelets. Status determined how much jewelry a person wore, and what it was made of. Common folk wore pearl necklaces, simple bracelets and leather bangles. Brightly colored earthenware and glass paste were a favorite enhancement.

The jewelry of the elite was made from gold, silver and other precious stones. Because gold never lost its shine, it was considered akin to the flesh of the gods. Wide jeweled collars were a favorite. Made with rews of beads formed into patterns of animals or flowers, the soft chiming sounds they made were thought to appease the gods.

Though idealized, tomb paintings are a catalogue of the changing fashions of ancient Egypt from the Old to the New Kingdom. Egyptians took appearance and cleanliness very seriously and were diligent about their fashion, hair and jewelry as well as their grooming habits.

The fabric of ancient Egyptian clothing was almost entirely made from various grades of linen. Linen was commont!y white, draped over the body and cinched at the waist, though some garments were sewn or tailored. Wealthy men wore long tunics, loincloths or kilts, while poor men only wore loincloths. Women wore long dresses, with differences residing in the quality of the fabric depending on social status. Egyptians commonly went barefoot, but could also wear sandals made from papyrus fiber or leather.

Cosmetics, including concoctions to prevent body odor and bad breath, were an integral part of everyday life for Egyptians. Used by both men and women, cosmetics were used as moisturizing ointments and sun protection as much as for beautification. Red ochre, a natural clay, was the most readily available cosmetic to tint lips and cheeks. Henna was used on nails and Lips, and as hair coloring. It was also favored by richer women to decorate their palms and the soles of their feet.

KohlHair FashionWigsChildren's Hairstyles

Egyptians believed kohl had magical powers, wearing it as black eyeliner to protect their eyes from the sun and to prevent eye infections from particles in the flooded Nile river. A special green kohl, made from ground malachite, was worn for ceremonies and religious rituals.

Women and teenage girls wore their hair long, and often braided. Wealthier women included carved combs or hairpins. The length of men's hair rarely dropped past the shoulders. They were mostly clean-shaven during the Dynastic Period, a trend began by the elite and soon adopted by the general populace. Queen Hatshepsut donned an artificial beard when she became pharaoh.

Wigs were very popular. Used for special occasions, or to conceal grey hair or baldness, they were fastened in place with beeswax. The most expensive wigs, were made from human hair and reserved for royalty. Other wigs were composed of linen, wool or animal hair.

Prepubescent children generally had their heads shaved. Young girls kept some strands intact, while young boys had a braid worn on the side.

Artisans of Ancient Egypt

Learn about the daily life of artisans in ancient Egypt.

Art in Ancient EgyptEgyptian CraftspeopleStylistic ConventionsDrawing & PaintingSeeking Harmony

It was under the watchful eye of Ptah of Memphis, the god of craft and architecture, that ancient Egyptians developed the unique rendition of the world they lived in.

However, it is vital to understand that their view of art, and those who created it, was likely very dissimilar to the modern concept of the word.

Instead of artists, the creative culture had skilled and respected artisans. The most significant categories of specialties for crafters were drawing, painting, sculpture and metalworking.

Ancient Egyptian craftspeople created both art and a wide variety of mundane, everyday tools. Every item created had a specific purpose and was produced by anonymous artisans who worked alone or with a team. Most crafts such as pottery and metalworking were utilized for everyday items. Luxury goods and artwork illustrations served temple rituals, and were not meant for public display. Artisans rarely signed their names to the work, though they were clearly aware that they possessed a unique skill and talent for the task.

Art in all of its forms has offered not only a practical insight into the way ancient Egyptians lived, but in how they viewed the world and their place in it. The balance of order and chaos was crucial in both the physical and the metaphysical universes. As a result, their art appears to follow a strict set of stylistic conventions that supported this worldview. From households and palaces to temples and tombs, pottery, papyrus and textile items were essential to the everyday life of ancient Egyptians.

In ancient Egyptian culture drawing was used as ilustration, such as seen in the Book of the Dead. It was also the first step in the creation of a relief, painting, or statue. Two-dimensional representations were concerned with order and form, and were intended to honor gods and promote the transition of the soul to the afterlife.

Stylistically, Egyptians were concerned with the depiction of the human form's inner self. As such, artistic representations were not concerned with realism, but rather with idealized youth, and perfectly harmonious visuals.

Chaos & OrderReliefs & SculpturesPrelimary SketchesSculptureSocial StatusSkilled Artisans

An exception to this were scenes depicting hunting and battle, where the environment and enemies moved in lively, even chaotic ways. Animals and foes were depicted piled up as if describing chaos, with Egyptians standing in solemn, disciplined poses, bringing order to the scene.

Reliefs could be either in high relief, or low relief. Either method required a surface suited to the desired technique. Preparation of the surfaces differed depending on the quality of the rock. A quarried block only needed a simple smoothing. Rough-cut rock monuments such as those found in tombs, required more work. Often the surface was coated in plaster before being sculpted.

For reliefs, preliminary sketches were drawn in red, then framed with a red grid to position the elements of the scenes. Corrected sketches were in black and once approved, the scene was ready to be carved. This method likely explains the name given to relief-makers: the one who draws the outlines.

Statues were believed to be vessels for the souls of the deceased, or deities. That is why a sculptor was called “the one who makes it live”. This divine duty earned them the utmost respect. As with a relief, creation of a sculpture began with a drawing. Most statues were made of quarried blocks of stone, primarily limestone, though sometimes harder stones such as quartzite were also used.

In ancient Egypt, the profession of crafter was organized and relied on a specific hierarchy. Most artisans depended on an institution to provide them with raw materials. There were three working levels for craftsmanship: domestic, large estates and within palace and temple workshops. Some royal workshops, at their largest, covered an area of about 2.8 square kilometers in size.

At the domestic Level, most Egyptians were craftspeople to a greater or lesser extent. The ability to repair tools was a daily necessity. Crafted everyday items could also be bartered for at the local market. Artisans with skills but lacking in resources worked at large estates, where the elite provided them with space to work and raw materials. The most skilled artisans were employed in royal or temple projects, and benefited from a special status. They were provided with good work spaces, and considered to be highly skilled.

Satires of the TradesDeir el-MedinaA Window Into the Past

An ancient text known as the Satires of Trades has a number of descriptive summaries that offer teasing glimpses into how artisans were perceived.

A coppersmith was said to stink and have fingers that resembled crocodile droppings, while potters were said to be like those who lived in bogs.

This view was likely exaggerated in order to highlight the most enviable position of all: that of the scribe.

Located near the Valley of the Kings, Deir El-Medina was a settlement created by order of the king to honor the most skilled artisans. lts name translates as "the monastery of the city.” Allocated a house on the initiative of the king, these craftsfolk were regarded with respect, and referred to as the royal artisans. Those who lived there worked on the tombs in the Valley of the Kings, and its surrounding temples.

Archaeologists believe the site was home to skilled and respected artisans for over 400 years. It is considered one of the most important discoveries relating to Egyptian daily lite. While much of the focus of Egyptian archaeology was on its kings and queens, it wasn't until the excavation of Deir El-Medina that Egyptologists were given a valuable window into the community life of ancient Egyptian artisans.

Evolution of Pottery in Ancient Egypt

Learn about the pottery and its various uses in ancient Egypt.

PotteryEssential ContainersPottery TechniquesThe Potter's WheelDifferent StylesOstraca

Excavations all over Egypt have uncovered enormous quantities of pottery vessels of all shapes and sizes.

The production of pottery was mainly confined to the outskirts of settlements due to the materials required, and to keep the kiln smoke away from inhabited spaces.

The function of the product determined the selection of the raw material, its treatment, its form as well as the finishing of the surface.

Pottery was essential to ancient Egyptians' daily lives. It was used in all aspects of life, from the storage of grains and liquids, to containers within the tombs of necropolises. The most common pottery was made from Nile silt that resulted in a reddish-brown clay. Limestone clay, which made for more attractive pottery, was only found in Upper Egypt.

Early pots were made from pinched or coiled clay. Chopped straw, ashes and other minerals were added, and the mixture was then smoothed and decorated before being put in the oven. Pots were fired in bonfires, or enclosed within a brick kiln.

The potter's wheel was utilized during the Old Kingdom. Pottery became smoother and more polished, similar to river stones. it was decorated primarily in red pigment, with the black color achieved by exposing it to smoke. Pottery workshops were attached to palaces or temples, and around the late period specialized workshops began to appear.

Quartzite particles, which created the rich blue or green glazing, became common during the New Kingdom. Mediterranean motifs and tin-based glazing came with the Greco-Roman era.

Potsherds could be found anywhere and were the most common canvas for writing or drawing, in comparison to the more expensive papyrus sheets. Named after their Greek description, Ostraca contained daily life records, letters or could be drawn upon. Artists drew sketches for temples and tombs or simply for leisure.

The Egyptian Household

Learn about the family life and homes of ancient Egyptians.

Men & WomenProfessionsHouse & FamilyMarriages & FamilyHouse TypesMansionsFuneral Stones

In pre-Greco-Roman culture, women were considered equal to men in many matters.

They owned property, testified in court, could divorce and inherit. Until the Greeks and Romans restricted their rights, Egyptian women could take over their deceased husband's trade.

Marriage contracts included mentions of allowances and items of value brought to the marriage by the woman, which would forever belong to her.

Certain professions were open only to women, such as weaving or professional mourning, while others were available to both genders, including working as servants for the rich households. Social status did have an impact, though; the higher in status, the easier it was to obtain education, and access different professions.

Homes were generally composed of three rooms. First there was the entrance, furnished with a small bench of brick, probably intended for a statue and protective divinity. Then there was the ceremonial room, meant to receive guests. The last room was either a bedroom or kitchen. Furniture consisted of basic chairs, chests and storage. Tables were not used for family dinners. Instead each individual had a small table of their own.

Marriages were a social contract rather than a religious construct. Family was vitally important to ancient Egyptians, and children were considered a blessing from the gods. The father, mother and their children were the nucleus of the family, and cohabitation sometimes extended to mothers-in-law, sisters, aunts and sisters-in-law.

Status and wealth played a large role in the style and size of ancient Egyptian homes. Commoners' houses were built with sunbaked mud-bricks. Wealthier homes were often painted in white, and decorated with various motifs.

Town officials and the rich lived in mansions with numerous rooms that were luxuriously decorated. Only temples and tombs, meant to last for all eternity, were built with stone.

Funeral stone inscriptions focused on the main member of a household. Encircling this person would then be a spouse, parents and children, possibly even siblings. These stones were so structured because there were no surnames in ancient Egyptian culture. Parents and children were a sort of family tree, which allowed for the identification of the deceased.

Beer & Bread

Learn about the production steps of brewing beer and bread making, and their importance in ancient Egyptians' lives.

The Importance of BeerDaily IntakesD.I.Y B.C.E.Brewing BeerBeer FilteringStorageLost Recipes

While the Mesopotamians invented beer, including using a straw to avoid the sediments and herbs, Ancient Egyptians perfected the brewing method.

Egyptian beer's quality was determined by alcohol strength, color and flavor.

During the Pharaonic era, beer was the most commontly used and important alcoholic beverage. The state and temples used it, along with bread, as payment to workers and it was included on the Lists of food offerings to the gods and the deceased.

Beer was the popular drink of ceremonies and festivals. The Festival of Drunkenness was even dedicated to it. Considered to be quite nutritional, beer was also significant in the day-to-day lives of ancient Egyptians. Egyptian adults and children consumed beer with all of their meals, and medical texts include hundreds of remedies that contain beer. It remained the most popular alcoholic beverage until the Roman era.

Recipes for beer varied over time, and depended on the quality of the materials. Bakers and brewers typically worked alongside one another at the same workshop or house. Many families often produced the quantity appropriate to their own consumption, with better quality beers produced for festivals and other special occasions. The most basic recipe used malted cereal as the main ingredient. Fruit such as dates were added along with honey and spices.

Once baked, bread would be crumbled into the brew to start the fermentation process. Adding grain enzymes would break down the starches, turning them into sugar and creating a thick mash.

Once ready, the bread and grain mixture was compressed, and then strained through a sieve with water into the mix of malt beer. Once fermented, the beer mash was transferred to large containers and again compressed, by foot or with pestles.

Once smooth, the beer was stored in pottery jars and sealed with a clay stopper. It probably couldn't be kept for long and likely had a thick, pasty appearance and texture. Very little was wasted. Leftover grains were reused to make sourdough bread, or combined with the next batch of beer.

While there are many ancient accounts for making bread, most of the knowledge known about ancient Egyptian brewing comes from an account by the alchemist Zosimos, over 300 years after Cleopatra's reign. More recently, Dr. Delwen Samuel, an archaeobotanist, has proposed alternate antique techniques to brew beer. However, experts are unable to replicate an authentic beer since not all of the techniques and ingredients used by ancient Egyptians are known yet.

Bread MakingDifferent TechniquesThe Omnipresence of Sand

Food was prepared on the floor until the Middle Kingdom, when cooking benches were introduced.

The introduction of durum wheat improved bread quality, meaning that the upper and middle classes ate better.

The poor, however, still made do with a diet consisting of a gruel made of vegetables, softened bread or barley.

Dough was kneaded by hand or foot and when sufficiently blended, additional items were added such as fruits, nuts, honey and spices. To leaven the bread they added sourdough or leaven from beer brewing. Ovens were circular or beehive shaped and made with clay or brick. If there was no oven at all, a bread maker used the hot sand to bake flat bread, a technique stillin use by some Berbers today.

(Behind the Scenes) Ancient Egyptians always had to fight off the omnipresent sand particles that were blown towards them. Despite their best efforts, sand regularly made its way into their food. Additionally, particles from the grain-grinding stone tools and ovens they used also contributed to attrition and prematurely worn teeth. The team tried to portray this through toothache animations and commoners sweeping sand off.

Wine in Ancient Egypt

Learn about the origin, production and storage of wine in ancient Egypt.

A Gift From HorusWine ProductionProtected DesignationA Taste for Quality

When the god Horus lost his eye in a war with Set, the ancient Egyptians believe the eye turned into a vine, and the vine's tears became wine.

Early texts dating back to 3150 BCE contain the hieroglyph for wine.

Regarded as extremely valuable, wine was highly sought after by the elite. It was also an essential part of many religious ceremonies.

A millennia-old tradition, grape cultivation and wine production was regimented in the way typical of ancient Egyptian bureaucracy. Egyptians kept careful records of winemakers, which they clearly identified on labels. Every land owner with a modicum of self-respect usually kept a vineyard. This held particularly true in the regions of the Faiyum and the Nile Delta.

Documentation shows that only certain craftsfolk were allowed to provide the containers required to store and transport wine. That and rigorous quality control checks established for every step of wine production shows that ancient Egypttians knew that the quality and longevity of wine could easily be affected by any number of variables, which they paid careful attention to.

Egyptians had different kinds of wines, most of which ranged in quality from good to very good. The sweet shedeh, to which honey had been added. The soft nedjem, obtained by drying the grapes in the sun. The maa, reserved for religious cerimonies. And finally there was the paour, the mediocre-rated wine, resulting from the second pressing of grapes and reserved for a less discerning palate.

Oil in Ancient Egypt

Learn about the cultivation and use of oil in ancient Egypt.

The Various Uses of OilCastor OilOlive Trees

(Behind the Scenes)

Castor, sesame and moringa were the source of the most common oils in Ancient Egypt.

Oil was used for various purposes: cosmetics, medical treatments, nutrition, perfume, athletics, and rituals, to name a few.

The team decided to use oil as an explosive to add more gameplay opportunities for the player.

Ancient Egyptians originally used castor oil in wick lamps, but also for cosmetics, such as facial and hair treatments. There is mention in some papyrus of castor oil being prescribed to treat constipation, and help pregnant women. Castor beans were found in ancient Egyptian tombs as early as 4000 BCE. Castor oil was made by pressing the beans from the plant of the same name.

Olive trees were present though scarce in ancient Egypt's earty history, and olives were mostly imported from Syria and Palestine. Their use and cultivation remained uncommon untilthe mass arrival of Greek settlers during the reign of the Ptolemies, when demand increased sharply. Olive trees were normally found in the region of the Faiyum and the lands surrounding Alexandria.

Romans

Roman Military Equipment

Learn about the military equipment typical of Rome's armies.

The Strength of RomeFoot SoldiersLegionary's EquipmentAdopting the Enemy's Technology

Skyphos: Tiberius' triump & preparation of a sacrifice

The strength of Rome was directly dependent on its military supremacy, and fundamentally militaristic society.

Regular citizens, comprised mostly of farmers and herders, joined to protect their land and families.

In return for their service, members of this civic army were allowed to vote.

Trained to be highly disciplined and obedient to superior officers, citizen-soldiers developed a deep sense of loyalty to their city.

Relief, base of Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus: iurator conducting a census

The quality of the armor of a Roman foot soldier was intrinsically linked to his social status and wealth. Chainmail was the most commontly used type of armor. Scale armor, made famous in today's media, came into use after Caesar's time.

Foot soldiers carried large and oblong shields, while the cavalry used smaller ones of Greek origin.

Soldiers were expected to carry their own kit, including the tools required for the construction of forts and tents.

Marching Roman soldier, with gear

Roman soldiers used the same types of weapons. The stomach and face were the most targeted parts of the body. As such, a legionary was equipped with two close-combat weapons: a dagger and a short sword known as a gladius.

One of the most ingenicus Roman weapons was the javelin. Its pyramid-shaped tip pierced the body, while its iron shank was designed to break upon impact, stopping the enemy from throwing it back.

Trajan's column

During their conquests the Romans regularly transformed enemy technologies to add to their own formidable arsenal.

After capturing a Carthaginian vessel, the Romans adopted its better features and constructed a superior fleet of ships.

Adapting heavy artillery designs from Greek modeis aided the Romans in building catapults and ballistae. The latter became an iconic symbol of Roman warfare.

Roman Forts

Learn about the structure and operation of Roman forts.

The CastrumThe FortificationsSpatial OrganizationThorough Planning

The size of a Roman military camp, known as a castrum, varied significantly depending on how many soldiers it needed to accommodate. However, they all shared common characteristics in design and construction, such as this fort before you, located in Cape Chersonesos.

Rectangular in shape, the forts were heavily fortified by ramparts and a ditch system. The walls were reinforced with parapets, essentially an extension at the roofline which allowed a protective barrier for patrolling soldiers. Depending on the availability of materials, some forts were built with stone, timbers, stacked turf and, particularly in the eastern part of the Empire, baked brick.

Access doors on all four sides were each flanked by guard towers. The commanding officer was positioned in the middle of the camp, giving him a clear view of the troops and the main gate.

Along with sleeping barracks for the soldiers, the fort also had a granary that was expected to hold rations for a year or longer. To ensure the health of the soldiers, every camp was equipped with medical staff and a hospital. A clean water supply with conduits for a bathhouse and latrines was included in the construction of every fort.

The Forts of Cyrenaica

Learn about the fortifications discovered in Cyrenaica, and their purpose.

Ancient DefendersA Fortress of StoneProtecting the Main RouteRoman Military Presence

Village near Cyrene

Cyrenaica was a Libyan region under Roman control, gifted to Rome by one of Cleopatra's ancestors.

The remains and foundations of ancient fortifications were discovered in the 19th century in the south-west of Cyrenaica, as well as a Roman garrison dating back to the first century CE.

Evidence shows that these forts were of Libyan origin, rebuilt and modified by Roman engineers when Cyrenaica was part of the Empire.

(Behind the Scenes) Stone was the most commontly used material to build forts in Egypt and Cyrenaica. Though no real proof of a fortress similar to the one before you has been uncovered in that region, the team chose to add it as a worthy and awe-inspiring end of game challenge for the player.

(Behind the Scenes)

Map of the world. Made by Eratosthenes of Cyrene, 240 BCE

The forts of Cyrenaica were intended to prevent invaders from gaining access to the main route that lead to the country's five most important cities. These forts were built close to coastal plains and deserts for added defense.

Three of these cities were recreated by the team: Balagrae, Apollonia and Cyrene.

Had it existed, the fort before you would have protected the road leading to Balagrae.

Other than reference to an attack around 404 CE and a military reorganization by Emperor Justinian during the 6th century CE, we still know little of the Roman military presence in Cyrenaica.

Roman Aqueducts

Learn about the aqueducts and water management in Cyrenaica.

Water ManagementAqueductsAdvanced Construction TechniquesBringing Water to the CityCleaning the Streets

Painting of the Pont du Gard, by Hubert Robert

Water management was taken seriously by the Romans. Cyrenaica benefited greatly from Roman administration, with the construction of aqueducts and canals.

The source of water varied depending on the location.

Many aqueducts were built at the foot of the mountains, offering greater flow from the melting snow.

View of the aqueduct near old Cairo, by Edme-François Jomard

The ability to transport water over a greater distance increased agricultural production.

Some aqueducts were reported to be over 7 kilometers in length.

Where the Greeks of Libya originally focused mainly on olive trees and figs, which required less water, the advent of Roman aqueducts allowed for a far greater crop diversity. Every farm's water use was carefully scheduled.

Roman leveling tools

The engineering methods used to create aqueducts were constantly reviewed, with a clear focus on exploiting the local environment. Materials, water usage, cleaning regulations and a deep understanding of how to exploit gravity itself were all important concerns.

Several fortresses were built to protect the aqueducts, basins and cisterns.

Roman Aqueduct of Segovia

Additional water was collected with wells and cisterns, but aqueducts were the main supply of fresh water.

The water was distributed based on the collective needs of the city, before the private needs of an individual.

Almost all aqueducts ended in a fountain where the water circulated to clean the streets, and supply bathhouses and latrines, thus improving the cleanliness of Cyrenaica's cities.

Crucifixion

Learn about crucifixion, the most severe form of Roman capital punishment.

Roman Capital PunishmentA Popular EntretainmentThe CondemnedSpartacus

In terms of the severity of Roman justice, crucifixion was at the top of the list of corporal punishment, followed by death by fire and decapitation. The upper class considered crucifixion unworthy of their position. Those lucky enough to have Roman citizenship were also exempt from such treatment.

Decimation, by William Hogarth

Easily accessible, crucifixions were popular entertainment among the citizenry.

Unlike throwing victims to wild animals, which required an arena, crucifixions did not require any particular setting.

The martyrdom of Saint Andrew

Those subjected to crucifixion were almost always slaves, traitors and lower class citizens.

Roman deserters were crucified because the betrayal of the soldiers was perceived as endangering the lives of Roman citizens.

Spartacus breaking his chains

In 71 BCE, a major slave uprising in Italia was repressed by the Roman army.

This resulted in the crucifixion of 6000 men including their leader, a slave and former gladiator known as Spartacus.

Characters

Image	Name	Description
	Bayek of Siwa	Medjay. Husband to Aya of Alexandria.
	Aya of Alexandria	Trained as a medjay. Wife to Bayek of Siwa.
	Julius Caesar	Roman politician and general.
	Cleopatra VII Philopator	Descendant of Alexander the Great's general, Ptolemy I Soter. Queen of Egypt.
	William Miles	Modern day mentor. Father of Desmond Miles.
	Layla Hassan	Technical engineer. Former employee of Abstergo Industries.
	Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator	Brother-husband of Cleopatra VII Philopator. Pharaoh of Egypt.
	Khemu of Siwa	Son of Aya and Bayek.
	Shadya of Euhemeria	Egyptian. Daughter to Hotephres and Khenut.
	Reda the Merchant	Egyptian. Nomadic merchant.
	Hasina of Yamu	Daughter of Menehet, an old friend of Bayek.
	Actor	One of the famed actors of ancient Egypt, in costume.
	Egyptian Woman	Wearing clothing typical of the common Egyptian folk of the era.
	Egyptian Nobleman	Wearing clothing typical of the nobility of Ancient Egypt.
	Egyptian Noblewoman	Wearing clothing typical of the nobility of Ancient Egypt.
	Roman Soldier	Wearing clothing typical of Roman soldiers of the era.
	Greek Nobleman	Wearing clothing typical of the Greek nobility of the era.
	Greek Noblewoman	Wearing clothing typical of the Greek nobility of the era.
	Greek Man	Wearing clothing typical of the common Greek folk of the era.
	Greek Woman	Wearing clothing typical of the common Greek folk of the era.
	Ptolemaic Soldier	Wearing clothing typical of Egyptian soldiers of the era.
	Bayek with Egyptian Hedj	Wearing hedj clothing, a more distinguished though still practical outfit. Hedj means "white".
	Bayek with Egyptian Irtyu	Wearing irtyu clothing, favored by the nobles. Irtyu means "blue".
	Bayek with Egyptian Narok	Wearing the robe of an elder Maasai warrior.
	Bayek as a Persian Commander	Purple is the color of leaders, feared by their enemies.

Timeline

Timeline

Gallery

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