'''Attend the Odeon and learn more about ancient Greek music.'''
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|-|Opening Remarks=
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*'''Aspasia:''' ''Welcome to Athens, wanderer. More specifically, welcome to the musical hub of the city: the Odeon.''
("Who are you?")
("Who are you?")
("What do you think of this place?")
("What do you think of this place?")
*'''Apasia:''' ''Sometimes, when the burdens of life begin to weigh heavy on my shoulders, I come here, close my eyes, and surrender myself to the music. It makes me feel like I'm a child again, my mother singing me to sleep with a gentle lullaby.''
("Let's begin the tour.")
("Let's begin the tour.")
*'''Apasia:''' ''The Odeon was where musicians came to share their songs with the public. The melodies played here caught the wind and drifted through the air, soothing the souls of Athenians across the city. Come find me when your visit is complete, and we will talk about the things you've learned. See you soon, wanderer.''
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|-|Closing Remarks=
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*'''Aspasia:''' ''Hello again. I trust your visit was worthwhile, and that learning of music was a feast for your mind. I know it was for mine. Is there anything else you'd like to do?''
("I'm ready for the quiz.")
("I'm ready for the quiz.")
*'''Aspasia:''' ''Fancy yourself an expert on music? Then let's put your knowledge to the test. Which of the following songs was played at weddings?''
("Take on the next suggested tour.")
("Take on the next suggested tour.")
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([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")
([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")
*'''Aspasia:''' ''Farewell, wanderer. I hope you enjoyed the sweet sounds of the Odeon.''
Aspasia:Greetings, wanderer. It is my pleasure to introduce you to a unique tour – One that won't take you to impressive landmarks or famous battle sites, but through a typical Athenian home.
("Who are you?")
Aspasia:My name is Aspasia. Though I am not original from Athens, I have climbed to the top of its social ladder using my wit and intellect. I've even earned the love of Perikles, one of the most powerful men in the city. The mind truly is a beautiful thing.
("What do you think of this place?")
Aspasia:If Olympos is Zeus' sanctuary, then my house is my own. It is a place where I can shelter myself from the noise and stress of city life.
("I would like to begin the tour.")
Aspasia:For an outgoing people like the Greeks, the house was a refuge of privacy. Inside, they could escape from the constant demands of civic life to enjoy the simple pleasures of family life. Look for me when you are done, and we can discuss the things you've seen. Farewell for now.
The house, or oikos, was a residence for Greek families and their slaves.
Contrary to modern houses, which look outward, the Greek household was built to look inward on a courtyard.
The courtyard was the house's central fixture. It was the building's main source of daylight, and also the location of religious altars dedicated to worship.
The building itself was made up of familiar accommodations, including bedrooms, storage rooms, a kitchen, and a living room.
Women were generally in charge of tending to the home, which in Greece was called oikonomia – a term that inspired the modern word "economy".
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Certain rooms in Greek households were reserved for exclusively for women and female slaves. These rooms were known as gynaikonitis, or gynaikon. The gynaikon were entirely separated from the men's section of the home – the andron – by a strong door, and were frequently situated in the house's upper stories.
Men often held drinking parties called symposia in their section of the house. Women, meanwhile, kept to their section to pursue activities like tending to their appearance, looking after children, spinning and weaving, and playing musical instruments.
A pasta was a corridor that connected a house's courtyard to its residential section.
Archaeological evidence from the city of Olynthos reveals that pastas were added to Greek home design in the 5th century BCE.
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Greek houses were built on foundations of stone with mud bricks and woodwork. Their floors were packed mud – with the exception of the andron, which had a tiled floor – and their roofs were compiled of tiles.
In cities, houses were positioned next to one another, and usually had a room or shop that opened up onto the street. Windows were normally only found on the first floor, but rooms were arranged so that air could circulate through them from the open courtyard.
The houses were heated with braziers of charcoal, which also helped light surrounding rooms. Furniture, meanwhile, was very simple, and consisted of couches, chairs, folding stools, tables, blankets, and cushions. Archaeological evidence also suggests that many other tools and objects were also kept in the home, including vases, sieves, cauldrons, and basins.
Greeks had no qualms about combining their work and their private lives, and many of them worked from home.
Artisans like blacksmiths, sculptors, and potters often had workshops in their houses. Some even operated small stores to sell their work. Similarly, doctors were known to treat patients in special offices located in their homes.
Women also worked in the house, and were responsible for making textiles, as well as producing clothes and supervising weaving, which was carried out by slaves.
If a household was wealthy enough, they could even produce a surplus of textiles to sell in times of financial difficulty.
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Athenians supported themselves by carrying out a wide array of commercial and industrial activities. Most of the time, there was no distinction between where people worked and where they lived.
For example, in Aristophanes' comedy "Lysistrata", the character of the tavern keeper is shown serving wine in his own residence. Similarly, according to Demosthenes, the general Konon ran an entire business in his house.
Teachers could even have schools inside their homes, such as the father of Aischines, who taught an elementary school in his house.
Functionally, it allowed air to circulate, and also provided access to most of the rooms.
It also sometimes housed a well or a cistern that collected rainwater.
In the center of the courtyard was an altar to Zeus Herkeios, who served as the protector of the household.
Women would often use the space to sew and cook, while children used it as a play area.
Furthermore, if the family had pets or animals, the courtyard was where they were allowed to run free.
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Based on scenes of household life depicted on ancient vases, Greek children had many different ways to entertainment themselves. Artistic representations show them doing everything from spinning tops, to riding seesaw, to playing knucklebones.
Children also played with small figurines, animals, wheeled horses, carts, and dolls. Terracotta or plaster copies of birds and other animals were also common toys.
Numerous dolls, such as a tiny figurine of a woman, have survived to this day. The dolls were designed with articulated joints in their arms and legs, which allowed children to manipulate them into a variety of positions.
The bathroom was located in the back of the house.
Much like today, it was used for cleansing and washing, although the Greeks used chamber pots instead of toilets.
Most bathrooms had a louterion that could be filled with water for washing.
Mirrors, razors, strigils, and sponges could also be found in the bathroom, along with small vases called aryballoi which were usually filled with perfume or oil.
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The Greeks viewed hair as a symbol of life and strength. Originally, hair loss signified old age of disease, and the shortening or shaving of hair symbolized a loss of freedom. During the Archaic period, men who had long hair were associated with the aristocracy.
In the 5th century BCE, however, it became fashionable men to wear their hair short, usually in curls or short strands. Women, meanwhile, had long hair held together by nets, pins, or bands.
The Classic period saw the appearance of even more looks, like the lampadion hairstyle, which involved bounding hair upward in a way that was reminiscent of a burning flame. Similarly there was also the "melon style" bun, in which hair was tightened to form a braided crown, and a Greek bun with a high knot.
Greek homes had kitchens where the family's meals were prepared.
The Greeks did not often eat meat, except during special occasions like banquets or after sacrifices.
They had a mainly grain-based diet, eating staples such as bread, porridge, or a barley cake called maza.
They also occasionally ate poultry, fish, and other sea food, as well as fruits, vegetables, goat milk and cheese, and olive oil.
Food was cooked on a tripod, or sometimes in a klibanos, which was a sort of mobile oven.
Other cooking implements included braziers, mortars and pestles, a spit to hold food over a fire, platters, and frying pans.
The family also used the kitchen to store food in containers called pithoi.
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According to Hippokrates, some Greeks ate only one meal a day, while others ate two. The main meal was called the deipnon, and was eaten in the evening, while the second possible meal was called ariston, and was normally eaten around noon.
The deipnon was made up of three parts: a cereal staple called sitos, a main dish called opson, and potos – otherwise known as wine. The opson usually consisted of meat or fish, while the wine was served with desserts like dried fruits, nuts, and cakes.
The Greek diet was on the Mediterranean triad: grains, grapes, and olives.
Symposia were major social institutions in Greece. They were drinking parties held exclusively for men.
The party took place in the men's section of the house, the andron, where residents and guests reclined on special couches called klinai.
Food was served on low tables set in front of the couches, while wine was placed in a krater in the center of the room.
During a symposium, men drank, sang, had philosophical discussions, and played games like kottabos.
Musicians, dancers, and even courtesans were often welcomed to attend as well.
However, wives and daughters were always excluded.
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The most popular game at symposia was the kottabos. The game consisted of flicking an almost-empty wine cup to project the remainder of the wine at a specific target. The target was generally a terracotta vessel either floating in a bowl of water or balanced on a stand, and the objective of the game was to use the wine dregs to sink the vessel or knock it down.
Another popular symposium game involved the singing of skolia. Skolia were drinking songs sung by symposiasts in turns. Participants would pass around a sprig of laurel or myrtle. Whoever held the sprig would start singing, then pass it suddenly to another person, who would do their best to continue the song.
The pyrgos, or upper storeys, was the women's quarter of the house, where they could pursue their activities and observe the city without been seen themselves.
The rooftops were also used in a special rite called the Adonia, a private celebration held in honor of Adonis, which was reserved for women.
At the beginning of spring, women filled terracotta pots with soil and lettuce seeds, then climbed a ladder to place the pots on the rooftop.
These pots served as the women's very own "Gardens of Adonis".
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The Adonia festival was linked closely to the myth of Adonis, a mortal who was beloved by the goddess Aprodite. After incurring Artemis' wrath, Adonis was killed by a boar, and from his spilled blood bloomed flowers.
The commemoration of Adonis' tragic death was central to the Adonia celebration. The participating women danced, sang, and ritually mourned Adonis by setting pots of plants on their rooftops that quickly germinated and withered. Because of this, the phrase "Gardens of Adonis" was often used proverbally by Greeks to describle something trivial and wasteful.
After the rooftop ceremony, the women descended into the streets for a funeral procession. When the procession was over, they buried small statues of the gods, then celebrated by drinking wine and playing games.
Aspasia:I hope now you have a better understanding of the routines and home life of the Greek people. What would you like to do next?
("I'm ready for a quiz.")
Aspasia:Then let's start with a simple question. Which group of people celebrated the Adonia?
Aspasia:Correct! The Adonia was celebrated by women of all stations. Let's move on to the next question.
Aspasia:Which of the following was known as the "protector of the household"?
Aspasia:Yes! Zeus Herkeios protected the household, and an altar to the god usually stood in the center of the house's courtyard. On to the final question.
Aspasia:Which of the following was not located in the bathroom?
Aspasia:The louterion was a water basin that was located in the bathroom. Try a different answer.
Aspasia:Correct! The klibanos was a mobile oven usually found in the kitchen.
Aspasia:I'm afraid mirrors were quite common in bathrooms. Keep trying.
Aspasia:It seems you really know your way around Greek homes. Well done, wanderer.
("Take me to the next suggested tour.")
Aspasia:As you wish. Come with me.
("Take me to a random tour.")
([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")
Aspasia:Farewell, wanderer, and thank you for visiting my city.
Wine
Visit the island of Thasos, and learn about ancient winemaking techniques.
Markos:Ah, my friend! How fortuitous to run into you in this most intoxicating place. I'd offer you a drink, but for some reason the workers won't let me borrow any of their wine. Cheapskates.
("Who are you?")
Markos:Why, I'm Markos, of course! Only one of the most successful merchants in all of Greece. You really haven't heard of me? My name is known from Kephallonia to Kos! If you've ever paid money for something, I probably received a percentage. But enough about me. Let's go back to what you're doing here.
("What do you think of this place?")
Markos:You know, I once started my own wine business on Kos. It hit a bit of a snag when my investors, three brothers calling themselves "The Cerberos", suddenly lost faith in me. But after they had a tragic run-in with a bloodthirstymisthios, I was able to land on my feet. From then on, the streets of Kos overflowed with wine, and my purse overflowed with drachmae! Very sad about the Cerberos, though. Couldn't have happened to nicer people.
("Let's begin the tour.")
Markos:As you can probably tell by all the grapes, this is one of Greece's many vineyards. Wine was an essential part of Greek culture, and this tour will take you through how it was made. In addition to being delicious, not to mention lucrative, wine was an important part of Greek economy. I promise I'll meet you at the end of your visit, my friend. See you soon!
Winemaking dates back to the 4th or 3rd millennium BCE.
It became widespread in Greece during the Bronze Age, and within centuries the Greeks had refined it further.
The first step in the process was always harvesting, where grapes grown on rows of vines were collected by vineyard workers.
According to Homer, harvesting was often accompanied by music to give it a more festive atmosphere.
Ancient Greek wine mainly came in three different varieties: austeros, glukazon and autokratos. It could be flavoured with spices, herbs, resin, and even perfume.
It was also much stronger than modern wine, with an alcohol percentage of approximately sixteen percent.
Because of this, the drink was mixed with water to make it more palatable.
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The god Dionysos was believed to have introduced wine to mortals. As a result, there were many celebrations and festivals dedicated to Dionysos, including the Anthesteria, an Athenian festival that marked the broaching of new wine from the previous autumn.
The Athesteria took place over 3 days. The first day was called Pithoigia ("jar opening"). As its name implied, it was dedicated to opening new wine jars and offering libations to Dionysos.
The second day, Choes (jugs), included jovial events like drinking contests, but also a solemn ceremony where the wife of the archon would be wedded to Dionysos.
The third day was called Chytroi (pots), in reference to the pots that contained the day's meal.
The Anthesteria was mostly lighthearted, but it had a dark side as well. The Choes in particular was viewed as a day of ill omen, where ghosts from the underworld would appear to haunt the living. On this day, people allegedly chewed leaves of whitethorn and smeared tar on their doors to protect themselves from the wrath of the dead.
Grapes were dried to maximize the wine's sweetness and prevent it from turning into vinegar.
In most vineyards, the dying process involved laying the grapes out on the ground under the heat of the sun – then covering them at night to prevent them from accumulating dew.
According to Hesiod's poem "Work and Days", the ideal time to dry grapes was "ten days and ten nights".
When they were finally completely dry, the grapes were collected in jars, just as they are today.
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The Greeks used different types of grapes to produce different kinds of wine. According to Julius Pollux in his "Onomastikon", there were 28 varieties of grapes, and they were often named after their place of origin or the method of their production.
The Byblia variety of grapes produced a wine called the Byblinos. The Byblinos enjoyed a great reputation among wine lovers, and even appears in Euripides' tragedy Ion during a scene set a luxurious symposium.
The dark-colored Pramnia grape variety, meanwhile, was used for the Pramnios wine, an appreciated black vintage produced in Icaria and Smyrna. The Pramnios was prestigious enough to have been drunk by the heroes of The Iliad and The Odyssey.
On the other end of the spectrum were the Psythias or Psythia, white grapes from Ionia that produced a very sweet wine known today as Liasto.
The Greeks had many methods for crushing the harvested grapes.
The most common technique was to use a lenos, a large "treading vat" where workers stomped on grapes with their feet.
Alternatively, the Greeks sometimes crushed the grapes by hand using a strainer, mashed them with a mortar and pestle, or squeezed them using a tool called a sack press.
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Wine had many uses in Greek culture.
The liquid was very important for symposia, communal drinking parties reserved exclusively for men. During a symposium, a krater (mixing bowl) at the center of the room was used to mix water and wine together. Once diluted, it was shared amongst the party's guests, who drank it from individual cups.
Wine played a part in libations to the gods and at funerals. Furthermore, it could be mixed with certain aphrodisiac or hypnotic properties to induce feelings like arousal or sleepiness.
Surprisingly, wine was also used as a medical treatment for the sick, and women suffering gynecological problems were sometimes prescribed the drink. Dioskorides even described two types of wine that could supposedly abort fetuses.
After the grapes were pressed, the resulting juice was poured into large containers called pithoi, where it fermented.
Once fully fermented, the wine was filtered through an ethmos or sack, which separated it from the residual yeast called "lees".
The wine was then placed in a special storage room.
The room was dry, and the wine pithoi within were half-buried in the ground to ensure they maintained a consistent of fifteen degrees Celsius.
These measures ensured the wine wouldn't lose any of its quality before being shipped to market.
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Wine from Thasos was considered to be one of the highest quality Greek wines, and was consequently produced a large scale to be exported to foreign markets. The Hippokratic treatise "On Disease" even listed Thasian wine among refreshing beverages that aided patients from hot flushes.
In Athens and the rest of Greece, Thasian wine was at the high end of the quality spectrum. Archeological evidence of Thasian amphoras has turned up in places like Athens, Amphipolis, Pella, Egypt, and other areas around the Black Sea. Many of these amphoras were labeled with the name of the people involved in the production of the container, such as potters, workshop owners, or inspectors dedicated to ensuring the quality of the jars. These stamps also helped authenticate the origin of the wine.
When the wine was ready to ship, it was poured into storage containers called amphoras.
These were smaller than pithoi, which made them easier to ship and display in crowded marketplaces.
However, that doesn't mean transporting wine was always a safe endeavor.
Sometimes, ships carrying amphoras as cargo would be wrecked before making it to their destination, losing hundreds of bottles of wine to the sea.
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Athens was home to many taverns, and the establishments' managers were often mocked by Aristophanes the Comic poet. The taverns were called kapeleion or taverna, and sold wine, vinegar, and sometimes sweets and bar snacks.
After a wine amphora was opened, the liquid was poured into a krater (mixing bowl) to decant. It could also be cooled by pouring it into a wine-cooler called a psykter first, then placing the psykter into a krater filled with cold water. When it was ready to be served, the wine was transferred to jugs called oenochoai, and was drunk in individual cups like kylikes or kantharoi.
In Athens, taverns flourished in the southeast corner of the agora, according to the numerous amphoras, drinking cups, mixing bowls, and cookware that have been found in the area. Similar archeological evidence has also been found in the south corner of Korinthsagora, suggesting there were taverns there as well.
Markos:Ah, my friend! Are you drunk with knowledge? I hope you enjoyed yourself, learning about all the picking, stomping, and bottling that goes into making Greece's favorite beverage. Maybe if my customers understood how hard winemaking was, they'd agree more with my perfectly reasonable prices. But let's talk about something else, yes? What else can I do for you?
("I'm ready for the quiz.")
Markos:You want you intelligence tested? Well let me tell you, friend, no one is more qualified for the task than me. Let's get started. What container was used to ship wine to market?
Markos:No, pithoi were big containers where the juice fermented into wine. But I'm fond of second, third, even fourth chances, so try another answer!
Markos:Yes! Wine was stored in amphoras during its long journey to market. Here's another question!
Markos:An ethmos was actually a strainer, not a container. Although both words end in "ainer", so I understand the confusion. Try again.
Markos:The lenos was the vat where workers pressed the grapes. Keep trying, though!
Markos:What container was used to ship wine to market?
Markos:Which of the following wasn't a type of wine variety?
Markos:No, austeros was a dry kind of wine. Try again.
Markos:No, autokratos was wine of the medium-sweet variety. But don't give up yet!
Markos:Correct! Thasos was an island famous for its vineyards, not a specific type of wine. Just one more question to go, my friend.
Markos: Glukazon was the sweetest type of wine, and my personal favorite, but it is not the correct answer. Try another one.
Markos:Which of the following wasn't a type of wine variety?
Markos:Which part of the winemaking process created the grape juice necessary for wine?
Markos:
Markos:That's the one! The harvested grapes were pressed in a lenos, often by the feet of vineyard workers! Just try not to think about that last part whenever you have a cup of wine.
Markos:
Markos:
Markos:Which part of the winemaking process created the grape juice necessary for wine?
Markos:You really know your wine! You're as good with the facts as I am with money, and that's really saying something.
("Take on the next suggested tour.")
("Take me on a random tour.")
([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")
Markos:If you say so, my friend! I hope we see each other again soon.
The Life of a Greek Woman
Learn what daily life was like for Ancient Greek women.
Aspasia:Welcome to Korinth, wanderer. I have a special visit planned for you today. It's an intimate, informative look into the lives of Greek women.
("Who are you?")
Aspasia:My name is Aspasia. Though I am not originally from Athens, I have climbed to the top of its social ladder using my wit and intellect. I've even earned the love of Perikles, one of the most powerful men in the city. The mind truly is a beautiful thing.
("What do you think of this place?")
Aspasia:It's amazing what women could accomplish while men spent all day trying to out-debate each other at assembly meetings. Their work should be far more appreciated on the whole, but we're going to acknowledge that now.
("Let's begin the tour.")
Aspasia:Korinth was one of the largest cities in Ancient Greece. it had had estimated population of 90,000 in my times, and much of that population was made up of women. This tour will shine a light on those women, and look at how they lived on a day-to-day basis. Look for me when you're done with your visit, and we can discuss things further.
Young girls growing up in Ancient Greece cities were usually raised by a nurse.
They mostly stayed in the women's quarters of the house, the gynaikon, where they spent their time spinning threads and weaving.
While there is not much historical evidence of young girls at play, especially compared to boys, it was still known to happen.
For example, an ancient terracotta group depicts two girls playing ephedrismos.
This was a competition to see who could strike an upright rock from afar using a pebble or ball.
The game's loser had to close their eyes and carry the victor until they managed to touch the same rock with their hands.
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It's estimated that the area that would eventually be known as Korinth was inhabited as early as the Neolithic period, around 6500 BCE.
During the Classical period, Korinth was a rival to both Athens and Thebes because of its control of the Isthmus of Korinth. However, under Alexander the Great and his successors, Korinth, along with many other Greek cities, lost its autonomy.
In 146 BCE, Romans under the command of Lucius Mummius besieged Korinth. Mummius killed all the male inhabitants and sold the women and children into slavery, then burned the city down.
The Romans built a new city in Korinth's place in 44 BCE, which they later made the provincial capital of Greece.
For a young Greek woman, marriage was the culmination of their induction into society.
The average life expectancy from women was about forty years, so most marriages took place when the bride was fourteen or fifteen years old.
The marriage did not require her consent, either. Instead, she was passed on from the protection of her father to that of her husband.
Married women were not technically citizens at the time, and lacked the rights that came with official citizenship.
However, they did receive a dowry that only they were allowed to spend, but in the event of a failed marriage, to dowry was returned to the bride's father.
After the marriage was consummated, the woman's status changed from being a maiden to a bride.
She remained a bride until the birth of her first child, wherein she officially became a woman.
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A male citizen's parents usually lived in his house along with his wife and children. However, ancient households in Athens and Korinth were normally not composed of extensive families.
Women living in Ancient Greek cities were essentially forbidden from participating in political life and most aspects of their lives were controlled by men.
Their most important responsibilities were running the household and giving birth to children, preferably boys.
Most of the time, women's excursions outside of the house were limited to visiting other female neighbors, as per custom.
The few exceptions to this strict rule were weddings, funerals, and religious festivals involving women in prominent public roles.
Learn Mre:
Ancient Greek men dedicated most of their time to public life, but Greek home life was dominated by women.
An Athenian or Korinthian wife was in charge of the household, and divided her tome between spinning, weaving, and sewing family garments. Meanwhile, duties like food preparation and child-rearing were usually performing by women slaves. However, if a family was too poor to afford many slaves, the wife took on these responsibilities.
Making textiles was the main occupation for most Greek women. It was a woman's responsibility to manufacture clothing for each of her family members, as well as to weave other household textiles.
Women with exceptional weaving skills were believed to make excellent wives and weaving in general was seen as a very attractive quality.
For example, Homer describes Odysseus' devoted wife Penelope as spending most of her days weaving at the loom.
Similarly, many Greek vases depicting women weaving were combined with images of a woman holding a veil, which was seen as the symbol of a bride.
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Some evidence of ancient weaving activities comes from an Archaic black-figure terracotta lekythos (vessel). The vessel depicts women weighing wool, spinning, working on an upright loom, and folding finished garments.
Besides weaving, another daily activity in Ancient Greece was fetching water from the local fountain house. The activity gave women the opportunity to socialize outside of their homes.
Women were also responsible for visiting the tombs of family members. Typically, the brought offerings and tied sashes around the grave steles.
Women could attend public speeches and visit certain sanctuaries, but only if they were accompanied by men.
Ancient Greek women cooked in their house's kitchen area. However, since their cooking equipment was small and portable, they also sometimes prepared meals in the central courtyard.
This was also where women performed other domestic activities. These activities were rarely seen by visiting men or passers-by, because the architecture of Classical Greek houses facilitated the social norm that women should never be seen at work.
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Many Greek art depictions of women preparing food suggest that cooking was occassionally done in the courtyard, where they enjoyed fresh air.
However, women mostly cooked in kitchen complexes located at the back of the house, where they would not be seen by others.
Hetaira in the temple of Aphrodite in Korinth, concept art by Caroline Soucy
The historian Strabo relays that the Temple of Aphrodite was one of Korinth's most famous landmarks. This was largely due to the temple's female patrons.
These hetaerae, as they were called, were donated to the the goddess by both men and women. According to Strabo, the Temple of Aphrodite contributed greatly to Korinth's wealth.
The hetaerae were the temple's main attraction, and many visitors came to Korinth in search of their company, for which they spent frequently and frivolously.
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In Athens, the legendary lawmaker Solon was credited with creating brothels with regulated prices. Brothels employed men and women of all ages, and were visited by a predominantly male clientele.
Aspasia:Hello again, wanderer. I Hope your visit was an interesting one. Greek women lived restricted lives compared to men, but throughout it all, they held on to their strength and dignity.
("I'm ready for the quiz.")
Aspasia:Feeling up for a test? Excellent. Let's begin with an easier question. What was the name of the woman's quarters in a Greek home?
Aspasia:Correct! The gynaikon was where young girls spent their days weaving and spinning threads. On to the next question...
Aspasia:What was the name of the woman's quarters in a Greek home?
Aspasia:The Korinthian temple said to employ the hetaerae was dedicated to which god?
Aspasia:Correct! Aphrodite was the goddess of love and passion, so it's only fitting her temple served such an... amorous purpose. We're almost done. Just one more question.
Aspasia:No, the temple was not dedicated to Athena. Try a different answer.
Aspasia:The Korinthian temple said to employ the hetaerae was dedicated to which god?
Aspasia:What was the name of Odysseus' wife?
Aspasia:Yes! Penelope was Odysseus' loyal wife , who kept at her weaving while waiting for her husband to return from war.
Aspasia:What was the name of Odysseus' wife?
Aspasia:You passed the test, wanderer. Congratulations.
("Take on the next suggested tour.")
Aspasia:Of course! Let's see what Greece has in store for you.
("Take me on a random tour.")
([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")
Bronze in Argos
Visit the city of Argos and learn more about the sculpting of bronze.
Herodotos:Welcome to Argos, traveler.
("Who are you?")
("What do you think of this place?")
Herodotos:I have always admired the dedication of Greek metalworkers. Without them, we would not have the inspiring monuments that stir the hearts of Greek citizens everywhere.
("Let's begin the tour.")
Herodotos:This is Argos, one of the oldest cities in Greece. The Argives were an ingenious people famous for inventions in areas like military tactics. However, what they were most renowned for was their metallurgic artistry, especially with bronze. I hope you enjoy yourself. Look for me at the end of your visit.
The area that would become Argos was inhabited as early as the 3rd millennium BCE, but it was in the 7th century BCE that it officially became a city-state.
One of Argos' major pillars was its metallurgical industry.
As far back as the 8th century BCE, the city was famed for making products like long dress pins and tripod cauldrons, as well as impeccable body armor.
In addition to their technical excellence, the Argives were also creative, as seen in their masterful bronze sculpting, which became prominent in the city during the 6th and 5th century BCE.
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Archaeologists have discovered a unique bronze set of armor consisting of a helmet and corslet in a warrior's tomb at Argos. The bell-shaped corslet is the earliest known piece of body armor from Iron Age Greece.
The corslet and helmet display both the technicall excellence and general sculpting skills Argos was known for.
Bronze is an alloy composed of ninety percent copper and ten percent tin.
Because of this, copper and tin needed to be smelted and combined to create the material needed for sculpting.
After the bronze alloy was formed, it was melted in special furnaces.
They required a tremendous amount of fuel, and were usually supplied with charcoal made from specific types of wood.
It's possible they were also coated with a protective lining of clay, which would have been sensible given the melting point of bronze is approximately 950 degrees Celsius.
Once the required bronze was melted and collected, the furnaces were dismantled and dumped.
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"Black bronze" is a modern term for ancient bronze artifacts with a fine black patina. Examples of black bronze include a special class of prestigious but non-functional Mycenaean bronze daggers that date back to the 2nd millennium BCE. The daggers were decorated with black inlay and gold and silver foil using a technique called "painting in metal".
"Korinthian bronze", meanwhile, was the name given to copper alloys that were depletion glided to acquire a golden surface hue. According to legend, Korinthian bronze was originally created by aciddent during the burning of Korth in 146 BCE, which melted the city's immense quantities of gold, silver, and copper together. However, Pliny doubted the authenticity of this story, because most of the arists with worked with Korinthian bronze lived long before the 2nd century BCE.
Herodotos:I see you have completed your tour. I trust you have a new appreciation for Greek sculptures, after learning of the heart and soul that was poured into each step of their creation. Now, what else would you like to do?
("I'm ready for the quiz.")
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([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")
Herodotos:Then farewell, traveler. May we meet again soon.
Perfume
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Aspasia:The mines make me nervous. All those fumes can't be safe to inhale day in and day out.
("Let's begin the tour.")
Aspasia:The Laurion silver mines were discovered between Thorikos and Cape Sounion near Athens. They were rich in mineral galena, and provided Athens with much of the silver necessary to mint its currency. Because of this, the mines were invaluable to the city, and the resources they provided helped turn Athens into one of the most powerful states in Greece. We will meet again after you've seen what the mines have to offer. Farewell for now, wandered.
Narrator:Silver mines were extremely rare in Ancient Greece, which only increased their importance. Athens started exploiting the Laurion silver mines at the end of the 6th century BCE, and used its metal to produce its currency. Production at the mines exploded around 485 BCE, when an especially rich vein was discovered. The mines' abundant silver made Athens one of the weathliest cities in Greece. They also provided the resources necessary to build a fleet large enough to defeat the Persians at the Battle of Salamis. In short, the Laurion mines played an integral part in the emergence of Athens as a Greek superpower.
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Athens's coinage dates back to around 530 BCE. The abundant resources from the Laurion mines allowed the city to mint a prolific coinage renowned for the quality of its silver.
Like modern currency, Athens's coins had different values and weighs. The most-struck denomination was the tetradrachm, which weighed 17.20m grams. The coin, as its
name implies, was worth four (tetras) drachmae.
The smallest coins - and the ones most commonly used in the agora - were the triobol (2.15g), the obol (0.72g), and hemiobol (0.369).
Narrator:Exploiting the mines' resources required a lot of labor. To meet this requirement and save on cost, Athens leased out mining concessions to its citizens, who had their slaves to do most of the work, alongside poor day-laborers. In the 5th century BCE alone, there were anywhere from 10,000 to 30,000 people toiling in the mines of Laurion. Together, the workers managed to produce an estimated twenty tons of silver per year.
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Ancient Greeks extracted a number of different metals like gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, iron, and mercury.
The most precious metals, silver and gold, were appreciated for their quality and rarity. They were used to produce coins, but also jewelry, other luxury objects, and even statues like the gold and ivory statue of Athena Parthenos.
Most metals were traded in the form of ingots.
Narrator:Mining in Laurion was a two-step process. First, the ore was extracted, and then it was refined. It took about sixteen kilograms of raw ore to produce a single pure silver drachma of about four grams.Recovered artifacts from the mines provide some insight into the specifics of the mining process. Galleries were dug to follow the veins of ore. They were small, and did not offer much space for the workers. They were also hand cut, it's believed that it ook whole days to dig only a few containers. Once the galleries finally reached the veins, the ore was extracted and then crushed on mortar stone to prepare it for washing.
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During the Peloponnesian War, the Spartans occipied and fortified Dekelia, cutting Athens off from important roads. The slaves in Laurion took advantage of this opportunity, and
20,000 of them fled the mines. Because of this, silver extraction in Laurion ceased.
The closing of the Laurion mines had a significant impact on Athens's economy. Its treasury gradually emptied, and it was left with no funds to rebuild its fleet. Deprived of resources,
Athens was forced to melt two gold statues of Athena Nike to strike gold coins. The city also produced bronze coins covered in a thin silver layer to imitate and replace its tetradrachms — a move that was criticized by the comic playwright Aristophanes.
In 404 BCE, when the Peloponnesian War was over, the mining of silver was virtually non-existent. it was only decades later, in 370 BCE, that entrepreneurs started leasing mines again. However, when Alexander the Great obtained a large amount of Persian silver in his conquests, the price of silver dropped so much that the yields from the mines were no longer enough to cover their running costs.
Narrator:Mine workers used washeries to help clean rock from the ore. The washing process required a large supply of warer, but Laurion was an infamously dry region. To compensate, cisterns were built in the mining area to collect and conserve seasonal rainwater. Once enough water had accumulated, workers poured it into wooden troughs containing rock and ore. The water's flow seperated the lighter grains of rock from the heavier ore, which was caught in depressions at the bottom of the trough. The newly cleaned ore was collected for refinement, and the water was redirected back into a tank to be reused later.
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The concept of using water to seperate ore from rock is still applied today by modern gold miners.
Narrator:Once the ore was clean and dry, it was ready for smelting. It's purpose was to isolate the silver in the ore. To do this, the ore was placed in a conical furnance filled with combustible charcoal. Bellows pumped air into the furnance to control the temperature. Inside, the ore burned, emitting a toxic smoke that was evacuated through a chimney. Eventually, the silver alloy was seperated from the slag and collected for the last step in the refinement process: cupellation. Cupellation removed any leftover lead from the silver. The smelted alloy was placed in a cupel, an absorbent bowl made of bone ashes. It was then put in a furnance, where it absorbed the lead and left only silver behind.
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The furnances used for smelting and cupellation required an enormous amount of fuel. Based on evidence from South American silver mines exploited under similar conditions, it's estimated that Ancient Greek mines required 10,000 tons of charcoal to produce one ton of silver.
Narrator:While the mines of Laurion belonged to Athens, the city frequently leased them to private citizens who exploited the site from anywhere from three to ten years. These citizens enlisted slaves and poor day-laborers to carry out most of the work. The workers had a very low life expectancy — about three to five years — due to the hazardous working conditions. The dangers they faced included toxic lead vapor in the air and lung-choking dust in the galleries. However, they were fed well enough to keep up their work, and their combined labor managed to produce an estimated twenty tons of silver a year.
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The Athenian politician Nikias once bought a Thracian slave named Sosias for one talent — the equivalent of 6,000 drachmae, and 30-40 times more than the normal price of a slave.
The reason for Sosias' high price was that he was an expert in searching for and finding silver tunnels. Because of this, Nikias installed Sosias as the administrator of the 1,000 slaves he already had working at the Laurion silver mines.
Nikias' purchase paid off, and according to Lysias, the politician eventually accumulated a fortune of one hundred talents from his mining business.
Aspasia:I hope you enjoy your trip through the mines. We talk so much of Athens' glory, but we often forget the city's power was due to tremendous amounts of work — work that often had a great human cost. What else would you like to do?
("I'm ready for the quiz.")
("Take on the next suggested tour.")
("Take me on a random tour.")
([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")
Aspasia:Farewell, wanderer. Best of luck on your journeys.
Wheat and Agriculture
See how Ancient Greeks gew and cultivated one of the most important parts of their diet.
Markos:Greets, my friend! Welcome to Arkadia, home of shepherds, sheep and shi — er, manure.
("Who are you?")
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Markos:I recently made an offer to buy some nearby farmland. Unfortunately, the owner refused based on completely unsubstantiated rumors that I once burned down three farms in Kos. Can you believe it? I've never burned down a farm in my life! I may have once paid someone to do so, but I assure you my reasons were entirely acceptable and in the best interest of everyone involved.
("Let's begin the tour.")
Markos:Arkadia was well-known for its sublime natural vistas. Farmers and shepherds were seduced by its beauty, and it's easy to see why! I have to leave for now, but I'll meet you again when you finish your visit. Until then, my friend!
Markos:My friend, good to see you again! You must feel hungry! I know I would, spending all that time watching farmers working themselves to the bone. Now, what else can I do for you?
("I'm ready for the quiz.")
("Take on the next suggested tour.")
("Take me on a random tour.")
([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")
Markos:Safe travels, my friend! We'd better be seeing each other again soon.
Pottery in Athens
Aspasia:Hello, wanderer. May I introduce you to the Kerameikos, the kiln that warms all of Athens' pottery?
("Who are you?")
Aspasia:My name is Aspasia. Though I am not original from Athens, I have climbed to the top of its social ladder using my wit and intellect. I've even earned the love of Perikles, one of the most powerful men in the city. The mind truly is a beautiful thing.
("What do you think of this place?")
Aspasia:The art produced here is some of the most beautiful in the Greek world. I envy the potters' skill, though I’m not quite as envious of their clay-stained hands. It’s bad for the nails.
("I would like to begin the tour.")
Aspasia:...
The Kerameikos was a large, sprawling area northwest of Athens's akropolis.
While part of it was used as a graveyard, it was also dedicated to the creation of pottery.
The Kerameikos was so significant to the art form that its name lives on in the word "ceramics".
Perhaps drawn by the river, potters moved into the area and formed their own bustling community.
It's believed that by the end of the 5th century BCE, hundreds of thousands of pottery vessels had been made in Athens, including everything from heavy, undecorated cooking pots, to delicates and beautiful containers reserved for the most precious oils.
Sadly, only around one percent of these works survive today, some only in small fragments.
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Unfortunately, no ancient manuals for making pottery have survived to the present day, and there is only limited visual and textual evidence to explain how ceramic works were created.
However, the vases themselves provide a few clues. Some pots were decorated with behind-the-scenes glimpses of potters and painters at work. These visual narratives, along with the texts of ancient authors, suggest that pottery-making was a family affair, with fathers teaching their sons the craft at a young age. One base even shows a woman working as a painter, which again suggests that pottery-making was a family business.
Aspasia:You've returned. As you can see pottery is...
("I'm ready for a quiz.")
Aspasia:Then let’s get right to it. Starting with an easy one.
What was responsible for the orange-red color of most Athenian vases?
("Paint.")
("Leaves.")
("Blood.")
("Iron.")
Aspasia:Correct! Athenian potters...
("Can you repeat the question?")
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([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")
Aspasia:Then we must part ways, at least for now. Farewell, wanderer.
Dyeing and Fashion
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Politics and Philosophy
Sparta Social Classes
Leonidas:Welcome to Lakonia, visitor. You're here to learn about Spartan society, yes? Then I won't stop you.
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Leonidas:Sparta is a glorious place, and you should feel honored to be here. Honored, and perhaps somewhat frigtened.
("Let's begin the tour.")
Leonidas:Sparta had a unique hierachy, especially compared to the rest of Greece. Everyone had their place, and you will soon learn what those places were. I will find you again once your visit has ended. Until then, visitor.
Spartan society was structured around austerity, self-sufficiency, and a hostility towards foreign elements.
It was divided into three social classes: citizens, perioikoi, and helots.
Citizens were called Spartans, or Homoioi.
They were free men and women with mostly equal rights and wealth, though their contributions to political life were extremely limited.
The perioikoi lived in surrounding areas under Spartan control.
They cultivated the land and were primarily merchants and craftsmen.
They were also part of the army, and their lands were the first line of defense in the event of a hostile attack.
Helots were Sparta's lowest class.
They were people who had lost their freedom to the Spartans, and they served the city as slaves.
Helots were considered property instead of people. As a result, they had no political or civil rights.
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Spartan society was puzzling not only to other Ancient Greeks, but to modern historians, as historical sources are few and far between.
In addition to the three main classes, Sparta's social system became ever more complex in the Classical period with the addition of sub-groups like the Hypomeneiones, the Brasideioi, the mothakes, and the Neodamodeis.
All these groups were bound together not only be a fear of their brutal Spartan superiors, but also by the strict discipline that dictated life in Sparta.
Helots made up the majority of Sparta's population.
According to Polydeykes, they lingered between slavery and freedom.
Two elements made helots differ from other slaves.
They were allowed to form their own families, and they were publicly owned by the city of Sparta instead of private citizens.
Because helots were deemed public property, they could not be sold as merchandise.
They mostly worked to cultivate the land, but also fought in wars alongside the Spartans.
While they gave the fruits of their labor to Sparta, they also kept a fair part of it for themselves.
This practice allowed some helots to make enough money to buy their own freedom.
Alternativety, if a helot served the state well enough in military campaigns, they could also be granted civil rights.
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According to Herodotos, the ratio of Spartans to perioikoi to helots was approximately 1:3:7. Modern historians, meanwhile, calculate that population of Sparta in the 5th century BCE consisted of around 12,000-15,000 Spartans, 40,000-60,000 perioikoi, and 140,000-200,000 helots.
While sources are contradictory, ancient writers like Herodotos, Thucydides, and Plutarch say that helots and Spartans were at odds with eacher other. While helots aided Sparta in battles and military campaigns, they also frequently carried out attacks against Sparta's citizens. Aristoteles even informs us that helots were almost always prepared to take advantage of any misfortune that might befall their masters.
At the same time, Spartans often treated Helots with great cruelty. This is especially evident in an incident that occured possibly a year after the Battle of Sphakteria in 424 BCE. According to Thucydides, the Spartans secretly slaughtered two thousand Helots, all of whom disappeared without a trace.
The founding of Sparta is dated around the 9th century BCE.
Historical information about the city is limited, but it was known to extend into the region of Lakonia.
Over time, Sparta started encroaching on the territory of Messenia, eventually leading to war.
Sparta gained more land in this conflict, which they deivded between their citizens and the perioikoi.
The aftermath of the Second Messenian War from 640-620 BCE then divided the population into three groups: The Homoioi, the perioikoi, and the helots.
The helots of Lakonia mostly respected Sparta's rule, and did not cause much trouble.
However, helots from Messenia supposedly resisted the Spartans, although sources can only confirm one revolt for certain, which occured in Messenia in 464 BCE.
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Spartans deployed helots in military expeditions both to reinforce their soldiers, and to prevent possible slave revolts back in Sparta. However, the latter strategy did not always work.
In 464 BCE, Lakonia was hit with an earthquake that sources say killed approximately 20,000 Spartans. Seeing an opportunity, the helots took advantage of the quake's aftermath and revolted. The revolt was so serious that two years later, in 462 BCE, Sparta was forced to appeal to their Peloponnesian allies — as well as Athens — for military aid.
The Athenian general Kimon managed to assemble 4,000 hoplites to help the Spartans. However, the Spartans sent them away, worried that they would actually try to aid the helots in an effort to undermine Sparta's power in the Peloponnese.
The Spartans eventually quelled the revolt, but it greatly damaged the city's foreign policy and diplomatic relations, making it one of the greatest instances of social unrest Classical Sparta.
During the 5th century BCE, helots were quite active in the army — especially during the Peloponnesian War.
They served as hoplites on land as rowers during naval battles.
In both cases, they gave Sparta an important numerical advantage. For every Spartan on the battlefield, there were at least seven helots.
Although many ancient sources say Spartan had a hostile relationship with helots, they were much likely to treat them better in times of war.
For example, when three hundred helots and 120 elite Spartans were captured by Athens during the Battle of Sphakteria in 425 BCE, the Spartans promised the helots their freedom if they served them well in combat.
Similarly, around the same time, the Spartan general Brasidas fought a battle alongside seven hundred helots.
Impressed by their courage and loyalty, Brasidas later freed them all and allowed them to join the perioikoi.
Perioikoi were another group of Sparta's population.
They lived not in the city itself, but in its surrounding areas.
The perioikoi were never hostile against the Spartans. In fact, both groups together known by the collective name "Lakedaemonians".
Periokic cities had their own autonomy and sanctuaries, but they were always bound to Sparta.
They were allowed to develop their own local laws and economies, but could never reach a level of prosperity that rivaled their parent state.
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The main factor linking Spartans and perioikoi was military service. The perioikoi played an important role in the army, often backing up the forces of the Homoioi as hoplites.
Spartans and perioikoi allegedly fought together in army divisions known as Iochoi. Thucydides' description of the Pylos campaign in 425 BCE mentions that of the 300 hoplites captured alive by the Athenians, only 120 were Spartans, and the rest were non-Spartans.
Leonidas:I see you've finished. I hope you have a better appreciation for Spartan society. Nothing we do is without reason, and every man, woman, and child has a role to play. What would you like to do?
("I'm ready for the quiz.")
("Take on the next suggested tour.")
("Take me on a random tour.")
([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")
Leonidas:Then you may leave. Farewell, visitor.
Spartan Politics
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Democracy in Athens
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School of Greece - Philosophy
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Philosophy comes from the Greek word philosophia, or "love of wisdom".
This concept was in direct contrast with philochrematia — love of money — and philotimia — love of honor.
As of second-half of the 5th century BCE, Athens was known as Greece's capital of philosophy.
Due to the rise of democracy, there was an increasing need for education beyond the basic subjects of elementary school.
Athenian citizens needed to be able to participate in various functions of the democratic state, such as being elected for office, proposing new laws, engaging in military decisions, or simply defending their rights.
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Greek philosophy was born in Ionia after the 7th-6th centuries BCE. The first philosophers dedicated themselves to natural philosophy and were called physikoi or physiologoi.
The discourses of the physikoi were written in verse, similar to Homeric poems. But while epic poems explained the world in terms of gods and mythology, physikoi explored more rational causes for natural phenomena.
The founder of the so-called Milesian school of natural philosphy was Thales, who declared that water was the principle substance of all things. Thales was the first to propose a material and rational element as a principle of the world.
The Ephesian school was also interested in the natural world. Heraklitos of Ephesus posited that all things in the universe are in a state of perpetual flux connected by a logical structure called logos. According to Heraklitos, fire was the first principle of the cosmos.
Due to Persian military expansion and political troubles, some Ionian intellectuals had to migrate and take refuge in Southern Italy, such as Pythagoras of Samos. Pythagoras founded a school in the town of Kroton, where had numerous disciples, including the legendary wrestler Milo of Kroton. Pythagoras is credited with many mathematical and geometrical discoveries, and he also belived in the transmigration of the soul after the death.
All these pre-Sokratic philosophers were polymaths. Their philosophy was a mix of cosmology, mathematics, geometry, medicine and ethics, and the3 later sophists were inspired by the all-encompassing nature of their teachings.
Originally, Athens had no official school buildings for higher education.
Sophists and philosophers taught either in private homes, or in public spaces like the theater.
To recruit young pupuls for long-term curricula, they also held classes in the gymnasia, where young Athenians underwent physical training.
The Kynosarges was a sanctuary to Herakle slocated in the south suburb of Athens.
At the beginning of the 4th century BCE, Antisthenes used this sanctuary as a teaching spot for his school of philosophy, the aptly called Cynicism.
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Perikles implemented many cultural policies that helped transform Athens into the center Greek culture. He invited philosophers like Anaxagoras and Protagoras, as well as other intellectuals, to gather in the city. As a result, many great philosophers were born in Athens, the most famous of which were Sokrates and Plato.
The philosophical talent in Athens attractede pupils from all over the Greek world. For example, Aristippos came from Kyrene to follow Sokrates' teachings, while Diogenes came from Sinope to study under Antisthenes.
Originally, philosophers and sophists taught in private houses, gymnasia, or public places. But during the 4th century BCE, permanent schools of philosophy began appearing in Athens, with Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lykaium being the first philosophical institutions. The schools included gardens, rooms for teachers, students, and guests, and a library. However, not all philosophers approved of institutional education. Case in point: Diogenes the Cynic, who lived in a barrel and delivered his teachings in public space.
During the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, Athens was filled with philosophers, books, debates, and ideas. This lasted until the 6th century CE, when the last philosophers of Athens were expelled by an edict from the Byzantine EmperorJustinian.
Any free citizen was allowed to involve themselves in the Athenian democratic process.
However, to truly influence the flow of politics, their speech and rhetoric skills had to be impeccable.
As a result, many Sophists taught subjects like logic, reason, and eloquence.
These were meant to help students achieve aretê, or excellence.
But this specific concept of excellence was often challenged, especially by other philosophers.
For example, Plato, Sokrates, and Isokrates preferred a more moral approach, and argued that rhetoric should be used as a means to serve the greater good.
Sokrates and Plato went even further, declaring that philosophy and wisdom were not only useful tools, but also ethical virtues.
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Sokrates was born in 469 BCE. His philosophy can be summarized by his exemplary lifestyle.
When he was forty, the Oracle of Delphi said Sokrates was the wisest of all living men. He was puzzled by this statement because he believed he knew nothing, and from then on, he began an investigation into the truth of the Oracle's words by searching for someone wiser than him.
In Athens, he questioned famous people of all professions to test their knowledge. He went to politicians, orators, poets, rhapsodes, and sophists, and their conversations were always the same. Using irony and refutation, he proved these arrogant specialists did not know what they thought they knew. He also tried convincing his fellow citizens to scorn money, honor, and prestige, and to instead focus on improving the wealth of their souls.
Philosophy was Sokrates' only occupation. He never wrote any books, and preferred to teach orally. Unfortunately, this did not make him much money, and he allegedly spent his whole life in poverty, wearing the same coat and always travelling barefoot.
In 399 BCE, the city of Athens charged with two offenses: not believing in the city's gods, and corrupting the youth. He was sentenced to death, and condemned to drink a poisonous beverage of hemlock. During his stay in prison, some friends tried to convince him to escape, but Sokrates refused, preferring to comply with the city's laws. Wise to the end, Sokrates chose to die instead of giving up his philosophical lifestyle.
Plato teaching in the gardens of the Academy, painting by Joshua Cristall (1767-1847)
Ancient Greek philosophy was multidisciplinary in nature.
In addition to wisdom and logic, philosophers also studied and taught math, geometry, music theory, and even medicine.
For example, the philosopher Prodikos wrote a treatise called "On Human Nature" where he outlined various explanations on human physiology.
Philosophy's influence was also great enough to affect medicine.
Hippokratic physicians were known to incorporate philosophical ideas into their work, and the treatise "On Airs" seems to be influencede by pre-Sokratic theories on air being the first principle of the universe.
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The Platonic Academy was founded in 388/387 BCE, outside the walls of Athens. Its entrance had an inscription that said: "Let no man enter who has not studied geometry", and it is clear from the Platonic dialogues that Plato and his school spent lots of time studying math.
Many mathematicians and geometers taught or worked in Plato's school, including Archytas, a Pythagorean philosopher, and Eudoxos of Knidos, a geometer and astronomer.
The Academy gave students the opportunity to develop new theories in mathematics and astronomy. For example, Eudoxos devised mathematical models of the planetary motions, and Speusippos — Plato's nephew and eventualy successor as the head of the Academy — conceived a model of the physical universe that involved geometric figures.
The famed philosopher Sokrates had an ambiguous relationship with Sophists.
In Plato's dialogues, Sokrates is potrayed as being in constant opposition with the famous Sophists of his time.
Aristophanes' comedy "The Clouds", meanwhile, depicts Sokrates as a Sophist himself, constantly demanding payment for his teachings.
Sokrates was in fact very poor, and made no money off his teachings.
He also differed from the Sophists in that while they only taught aristocratic youths, Sokrates taught everyone regardless of station.
Unfortunately, his controversial ideas and practices did not sit well with the city of Athens, and he was eventually tried for impiety.
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Nowadays, the term "sophist" has negative connotations, and refers to the use of bad and fallacious arguments. This pejorative view of the word can be traced back to Plato, who saw sophists as his main adversaries. However, "sophist" is actually derived from "sophia" — the Greek word for wisdom — and originally meant "wise man".
In ancient Greece, the sophists represented a new professional group that made a living off teaching specialized subjects like rhetoric and persuasion. Their instruction was meant to encourage critical thinking about topics like morality, politics and religion. However, the sophists were not an organized collective, and members taught their own individual beliefs.
Because they taught in return for a fee, sophists' schools were only attended by those who could afford it — usually members of the aristocracy and wealthy families. However, they also showcased their skills at different public events. For example, the sophist Gorgias once delivered Athens' annual funeral oration honoring the victims of war, and Hippias presented at Olympia on multiple occasions.
Protagoras of Abdera is generally considered as the first professional sophist. He trained his pupils to argue from both points of view because he believed that truth could not be limitd to one side of an argument. He claimed to be able "to make the weaker argument stronger", and is the author of the famous asying: "Man is the measure of all things", meaning truth is relative and differs according to each individual. He also opposed traditional religious values by defending an agnostic view of the gods, saying "Concerning the gods, I have no means of knowing whether they exist or not, nor of what sort they may be, because of the obscurity of the subject, and the brevity of human life."
Philosophy was not only a collection of ideas, but a way of life.
According to philosopher Pierre Hadot, his ancient counterparts had a daily regimen of "spiritual exercises" to combat their passions, doubts, and illusory beliefs.
These exercises included meditation on death, contemplation of nature, or speaking with a friend or mentor.
Philosophers also followed specific dress codes and diets.
They were also part of a community of masters and students. These communities were created and strengthened in schools.
Plato founded such a school in the early 4th century BCE, when he purchased a property in a grove just outside of Athens.
The school was designed to groom students into "philosopher citizens" who coudl eventually rule the city in a measured and fair manner.
It followed its own rules, and was open to both male and female disciples.
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Aristotle was born in 384 BCE in Stagira. He came to Athens at the age of seventeen and studied under Plato at the Academy. He spent some twenty years in this school until Plato's death in 347 BCE. After travelling through Greece, he settled at the court of Philip II of Macedon in 343 BCE to tutor a young Alexander the Great.
Aristotle came back to Athens in 335 BCE to set up his own school, the Lykeion, which became the city's second center of learning. The members of his school were called Peripatics, or "those who walk around". This was either because Aristotle taught while walking around the premises, or because there was a covered walkway called a "peripatos" in the gymnasium of his school.
At the Lykeion, Aristotle set up a library that would become a model of the library of Alexandria. Research took place on a large scale, as evidenced by the titles of Aristotle' books; he engaged in physics, psychology, politics, zoology, and literature. Famous disciples also participated in his research programs: Theophrastos of Eresos wrote on botany and stones, Eudemos of Cyprus composed a history of mathematics, and Aristoxenos of Tarentum wrote a book on harmonics.
After the death of Alexander, Aristotle was denounced for impiety and had to flee Athens. He took refuge in Euboea, where he died in 322 BCE.
For Aristotle, happiness (eudaimonia) was the ultimate goal in life, and money, honor, and pleasure were only means to reach that happiness, not ends in themselves. Furthermore, since it is rationality that distinguishes humans from plants and animals, our purpose and function is to use reason. A happy life is thus a life of reason, and according to Aristotle, the life of a theoretical inquiry is the happiest life of all.
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Art, Religion, and Myths
The Olympic Games
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School of Greece - Music
Attend the Odeon and learn more about ancient Greek music.
Aspasia:Welcome to Athens, wanderer. More specifically, welcome to the musical hub of the city: the Odeon.
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Apasia:Sometimes, when the burdens of life begin to weigh heavy on my shoulders, I come here, close my eyes, and surrender myself to the music. It makes me feel like I'm a child again, my mother singing me to sleep with a gentle lullaby.
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Apasia:The Odeon was where musicians came to share their songs with the public. The melodies played here caught the wind and drifted through the air, soothing the souls of Athenians across the city. Come find me when your visit is complete, and we will talk about the things you've learned. See you soon, wanderer.
Aspasia:Hello again. I trust your visit was worthwhile, and that learning of music was a feast for your mind. I know it was for mine. Is there anything else you'd like to do?
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Aspasia:Fancy yourself an expert on music? Then let's put your knowledge to the test. Which of the following songs was played at weddings?
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Aspasia:Farewell, wanderer. I hope you enjoyed the sweet sounds of the Odeon.
Knossos
Herodotos:Welcome to Knossos, traveler, where the Minotaur once prowled.
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Herodotos:Some say if you listen closely, you can still hear echoes of the Minotaur's ferocious bellowing. Of course, it may only be a trick of the wind. Perhaps.
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Herodotos:Knossos was the seat of the old Minoan civilization, where King Minos once supposedly ruled. These ruins have been the backdrop for many important events in both history and mythology. LOok for me when your visit is over, and we'll discuss what you've seen.
Narrator:The island of Krete was first settled around 8000 BCE. Over time, significant towns and maritime trade began to develop. Palaces were built, destroyed, and then rebuilt, culminating in what archaeologists call the Neopalatial period, which began around 1700 BCE. This period lasted for over three hundred years, and is considered the golden age of the Minoan civilization. The largest palace of this period was located in Knossos—and featured mazelike complexes of workshops, temples, courts, throne rooms, and living areas, as well as paved roads and advancing plumbing and draining. Trade and external relations were important to the Minoans, and their networks extended across the eastern Mediterranean. As a result, the people of Krete and the lands they traded with often influenced each other and exchanged ideas, usually through peaceful interactions instead of military conflict.
Learn more: Arthur John Evans was an archaeologist known for his excavations at Knossos from 1900–1931. He was so dedicated to his work at the site he missed his father's funeral to preside over the excavation of Minos' palace.
Arthur Evans named the Minoan civilization after King Minos, but it is unknown what the Minoans called themselves.
Narrator:The settlement of Knossos was established as early as the 7th millennium BCE. Today, one of the sites most notable landmarks in the palace ruins located on the Kephala hill. The ruins are split into two phases, the Old Palace, which has been poorly preserved, and the New Palace. The New Palace of Knossos had a surface area of approximately 13,000 square meters. Making it the largest Minoan palace. Its focal point was a central court which was probably used for ceremonial activities. The Minoan palace centers collapsed when Krete was overrun and conquered by a Mycenaean invasion from mainland Greece. However, the date of the final destruction of Knossos' palace is still unknown.
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Arthur John Evans oversaw many architectural reconstructions at Knossos, with somewhat mixed results.
In the negative side, Evans' restoration at Knossos, with somewhat mixed results.
On the negative side, Evans' restoration of the Throne Room prioritized how it supposedly looked in the Late Bronze Age period, instead off representing the full spectrum of its history. Evans also overemphasized the Minoan identity of the site, leaving out the aspects of Mycenaean culture that influenced Knossos' art and architure.
On the positive side, the site's reconstruction helped save many parts of the site that would have otherwise been lost. Moreover, while the restoration of some art and architecture was inaccurate, it did help evoke the elegance and skill of Minoan architects and painters.
Narrator:During the New Palace phase, the group floor was dedicated to economic activities, and contained large storage rooms. The residential quarters—which notably had toilets—were located southeast of the Central Court, at the foot of the Grand Staircase. The palace was lavishly decorated with wall paintings depicting thing like bull-related sports and richly-dressed women. Large stone "horns of consecration", which were important Minoan religious symbols, hung prominently in the West Court. Other notable parts of the palace include the Theatrical Area, which is believed to have served as a viewing space, the Tripartite Shrine, which was dedicated to the worship of an important Minoan deity historians refer to as the "Mother Goddess", and the Piano Nobile, a grand space located on the palace's second floor.
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One fresco excavated from Knossos in 1914—"Ladies in Blue"—has been reproduced for New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art. The copy reproduces and embellishes fragments that were burned or roded on the original fresco.
Narrator:During his trips to Krete, archaeologist Arthur John Evans discovered several ancient tablets. They eventually led him to define the forms of Minoan writing known as Linear A and Linear B. The Minoans used these forms of writing for recording many things, including business transactions. For example, one clay tablet at the palace of Knossos was inscribed in Linear B script. The tablet detailed the transfer of coriander—often used in the perfume industry—between a man named Kyprios and another person named Twinon. The deciphering of tablets such as these has given historians great insight into many aspects of Minoan culture and society.
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During the Middle and Late Minoan period, Minoans buried their dead in a terracotta coffin known as a larnax.
Many larnakes were found buried in a cemetery to the north of the town that surrounded the palace at Knossos. The coffins were shapes like bathtubs or chests, and were often elaborately painted with scenes that were chosen for their funerary significance. They were also sometimes buried alongside valuable grave offerings.
It's possible the coffins had domestic uses as well, functioning as either bathtubs or storage chests.
Narrator:According to the myth, the half-man half-bull Minotaur was born after Queen Pasiphae slept with a bull sent by the gods as punishment upon her. This embarrassed King Minos, but he could not bring himself to kill the Minotaur. Instead, he hid the monster in a labyrinth constructed by Daidalos.
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Depictions of "bull-leaping" were prevalent throughout Minoan art, and bull-leaping scenes are believed to have decorated the walls above ceremonial bull-rings. However, the reasons for engaging in such an activity remain unknown. Mythical bulls like the Minotaur played important roles in Minoan iconography. This is likely due to cattle being a vital asset in the Kretan economy, especially during the Bronze Age, Bull and cattle are even mentioned in various Linear B documents.
Narrator:Daidalos was an important figure in Greek mythology. An ingenious inventor, he once became so jealous of his similarly-clever nephew that he threw him from the top of the Athenian Akropolis. As a consequence, Daidalos was banished from Athebs, though this did not prevent him from being able to get work. In Krete, he was hired by Queen Pasiphae to construct an artificial cow suit that would allow her to seduce a bull she was particularly taken with due to a curse from the Gods. Daidalos complied, and his invention helped facilitate the birth of the Minotaur. Afterwards, Minos conscripted Daidalos to build the Labyrinth, presumably as penance for his role in creating the Minotaur. But perhaps the most well-known story about Daidalos involves his son, Ikaros, who used wings built by his father and flew too close to the sun, thus plummeting into the sea.
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Much of the story of Daidalos as we known it comes from the Roman poet Ovid. While older versions of the story exist in ancient Greek sources, they wary wildly in their telling and often contradict each other when it comes to specific details.
Narrator:Some time after the birth of the Minotaur, King Minos' son Androgeos was killed in Athens by the same bull that impregnated his mother. And infuriated demanded that Athens send seven of their noblest men and seven of their most virtuous women to Knossos every year. After being carried to Krete aboard a ship with black sails, the men and women would then be cast into the Labyrinth to be eaten by the Minotaur.
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Athens' donating of youthful men and women to Krete may have been based on a real payment of tribute to the Aegean's dominant trading power in Bronze Age Greece. However, this is only a theory.
Narrator:One of the Athenians youths chosen to be imprisoned in the Labyrinth, Theseus, had enough of the morbid ritual. Before leaving Athens, he proclaimed he would kill the Minotaur, then return to his city on a ship flying while sails. Before entering the Labyrinth, Theseus met King Minos' daughter, Ariadne, who fell madly in love with him. Ariadne provided Theseus with a thread he could unravel to him find his way back out of the maze. Armed with this thread, Theseus entered the Labyrinth, killed the Minotaur, escaped the maze, and set sail for Athens with Ariadne by his side.
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After successfully killing the Minotaur, Theseus set sail for Athens with Ariadne, but stopped in Naxos for a long celebration. Due to the many hours of feasting and drinking, Ariadne fell asleep and forgot to return to Theseus' boat, which departed for Athens without her. In another version of the story, Theseus deliberately left Ariadne behind.
When Theseus realized what he'd done to Ariadne, he was so distraught that he forgot to change his ships' sails from black to white. When his father Aegeus saw the ominous black sails on Theseus' ship, he presumed his son was dead and, fraught with grief, threw himself into the sea.
Herodotos:I see you've found your way through the maze of ruins. The Minoans played a large part in shaping Greek myths, but also in introducing influences from other places and cultures. Now, what else would you like to do?
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Herodotos:Farewell, traveler. I hope you enjoyed exploring the ruins.
School of Greece - Theater
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Gods and Love
Explore the Akrokorinth, and discover the relationship between the gods and romance.
Markos:Why, I'm Markos, of course! Only one of the most successful merchants in all of Greece. You really haven't heard of me? My name is known from Kephallonia to Kos! If you've ever paid money for something, I probably received a percentage. But enough about me. Let's go back to what you're doing here.
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Markos:It really is a lovely sight, isn't it? The temple, that is. Not the ladies. Although they are also lovely. Lovely, and lively, and... I'm sorry, what were we talking about?
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Markos:In Greece, many love stories were told about the gods. How romantic! Sometimes they were heartwarming and happy, but they often ended in tears, tragedy, and a whole brood of illegitimate children. I'm looking at you, Zeus! Anyway, this tour will introduce you to some of these divine love stories, which may give you perspective on how the Greeks approached love in their own lives. Enjoy your visit, my friend! I'll come see you again when you finish the tour.
Narrator:Much like Athens, Korinth had its own akropolis, called the Akrokorinth. The natural promontory provided an excellent view of the surrounding territory. It was also the home of several sanctuaries, allegedly constructed in the 6th century BCE. The Akrokorinth's most famous attraction was the Temple of Aphrodite. Pausanias describes it as having statues of Aphrodite, her son Eros, and the son god Helios. According to Strabo, the temple's most distinguishing feature was its servants, who acted as "sacred prostitutes". However, Strabo is the only source for this information, and it is still hotly debated to this day.
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On the eve of the Battle of Salamis, the situation for the Greeks felt hopeless. After their loss at Thermopylai, the Persian king Xerxes' advance seemed unstoppable.
Seeking solace in religion, the women of Korinth gathered at the Temple of Aphrodite. According to the authors Pindar, Plutarch, and Athenaios, the women prayed to the goddess, begging her for something, anything, to stop the Persian invasion.
It seems their prayers were answered, and the Battle of Salamis ended with a glorious victory for the Greeks.
Narrator:Love played a large role in countless mythological stories. Zeus himself was not immune to the feeling ,and fell for both mortals and other deities. Some myths centered on forbidden feelings that led to tragedy, such as Phaedra's love for her stepson Hippolytos. While marriage was prominent in mythology, it was usually presented as problematic. For example, Aphrodite frequently cheated on her husband Hephaistos, and Medea's resentment against her ex-husband Jason eventually drove her mad enough to murder her children. These less than ideal depictions reflected Greeks' idea of marriage, which they viewed as a civic duty instead of a romantic union.
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The Homeric "Hym to Aphrodite", which dates back to the 7th or 6th century BCE, tells a story of the goddess succumbing to the charms of a mortal man named Anchises:
"But upon Aphrodite herself Zeus cast sweet desire to be joined in love with a mortal man, to the end that, very soon, not even she could be innocent of a mortal's love; lest laughter-loving Aphrodite should one day softly smile and say mockingly among all the gods that she had joined the gods in love with mortal women who bare sons of death to the deathless gods, and had mated the goddesses with mortal men. And so he put in her heart sweet desire for Anchises who at the time among the steep hills of many-fountained Idea was tending cattle, and in shape was like the immortal gods. Therefore, when laughter-loving Aphrodite saw him, she loved him, and terribly desire seized her in her heart".
Narrator:The goddess Aphrodite was one of the mightiest Olympians, and was typically associated with love, beauty, and sex. She was worshipped all across the Ancient Mediterranean by men and women, both young and old. Her origins differ depending on the version of the story. The poet Hesiod says she was born from the severed genitals of Ouranos, while Homer's version of the myth names her as the daughter of Zeus and Dione. Aphrodite appeared regularly in mythological stories, and had many mortal lovers. Her favourite was Adonis, a beautiful boy who died tragically in a hunting accident. Aphrodite was devastated by his death, so she created a cult called the Adonia to commemorate him.
Learn more: Eros was the god of sexual love. According to Ancient poets like Alkman, Ibykos, and Sappho, he was young and beautiful, but also cunning, unpredictable, and cruel. The tragedian Euripides later introduced a concept that Eros wielded a bow and arrows that inducted feelings of love in whoever they struck.
Eros was also a god of fertility, and was allegedly celebrated in places like Thespiae, Athens, and Elis. On vases and in other art, he was usually depicted as winged and boyish, and was often represented alongside Aphrodite. He was also associated with women, domestic scenes, and weddings.
Depending on the myth, he has had various different mothers, including Eileithyia, Penia, Iris, Aphrodite, and Gaia. Hesiod, meanwhile believed Eros was a primeval god who emanated from Chaos.
Markos:My friend, good to see you again. I bet you were surprised by some of the stories you heard. For a bunch of immortal beings, the gods certainly were saucy, ah? Tell me if there's anything else I can do for you.
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Markos:Normally I don't let people go until they buy a souvenir, but for you, my friend, I'll make an exception.
Battles and Wars
Spartan Education
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Battle of Marathon
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Thermopylai
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Battle of Amphipolis
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The Battles of Pylos and Sphakteria
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Famous Cities
The Akropolis of Athens
Aspasia:Greetings, wanderer, and welcome to the Akropolis, the shining jewel of Athens.
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Aspasia:My name is Aspasia. Though I am not original from Athens, I have climbed to the top of its social ladder using my wit and intellect. I've even earned the love of Perikles, one of the most powerful men in the city. The mind truly is a beautiful thing.
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Aspasia:Personally, I think the Akropolis is one of, if not the, greatest place in all of Greece. Though considering it was the project of my partner, Perikles, I may be a touch biased.
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Aspasia:The Akropolis of Athens is a bastion of art and culture worthy of the gods themselves. Within this citadel, you will find many important sacred buildings, as well as some of the most magnificent art in all of Greece. You are in for a very enlightening visit.l When you're done, come find me, and we can discuss the things you have seen. Farewell for now.
The Akropolis has gone through many changes in its long history.
It began as a simple rock, was settled as early as the Neolithic period, and then became a fortress in the Mycenaean period.
Stone buildings started appearing in the 7th century BCE, but the famous structures whose ruins remain visible today date mainly from a period of construction in the 5th century BCE.
The location of the Akropolis is closely tied with Athens' foundation myth.
Supposedly, it was the site where Athena and Poseidon competed for the city's patronage. This connection gave the Akropolis a sacred aura, and it was considered the religious heart of the city.
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After the archaic buildings of the old Akropolis—most notably the temple of Athena Polias—were burned down in 480 BCE by Xerxes' Persian army, the great general and statesman Perikles resolved to transform the naturally imposing rock into a huge monument to Athens' political, military, and cultural greatness. Thus began the most ambitious building program the Greek world had even seen at the time.
Seven million drachmae were spent on the whole project, which has been deemed by UNESCO as "the supreme expression of the adaptation of architecture to a natural site". The Parthenon alone cost 469 talents—nearly 3 million drachmae, and the equivalent of approximately 12 tons of silver.
To justify the massive cost, Perikles cited the need to immortalize Athens' greatness, but also called the attention to the jobs the project would create for hundreds of stone cutters, carpenters, metal workers, painters, and unskilled laborers, all of whom were grateful for the opportunity to make more money.
The Temple of Athena Nike was built on the remains of old fortifications from the Mycenaean era.
Worship at the temple can be traced back to the 6th century BCE, but the building itself was destroyed during the Greco-Persian Wars a century later. It was rebuilt during the Peloponnesian War.
Given that the name Athena Nike roughly means "Athena of Victory", it was likely constructed in the hopes that Athens would win the war.
Unusually, the temple depicts historical scenes of battles against the Persians, instead of the more mythologically-inclined art of other Greek buildings.
The temple's priestess was chosen randomly among the Athenians, and received of fifty drachmae annually, along win skins and trophies from sacrificed animals.
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The area where the temple of Athena Nike was built offers a beautiful view of the southern shores of Attika, along with the ports of Piraeus and Phaleron.
This noteworthy feature—as well as the Mycenaean ruins nearby—were the basis for the assumption that Aigeus, the ninth king of the old Athenian dynasty, watched the sea from here in the hopes of seeing his son Theseus returning safe and sound from Krete.
Theseus, the most important Athenian mythological hero, had left for Krete under the guise of one of the youth send to feed the Minotaur. Theseus promised Aigeus that he would kill the monster and bring back the Athenian youth on a ship flying white sails, symbolizing victory and joy.
The hero slew the Minotaur and sailed home, but forgot to replace his ship's dark mourning sails with lighter ones. When Aigeus saw the dark sails, he assumed Theseus had died. Stricken with grief, the king threw himself off the steep bastion of the Akropolis, meeting his death on the ground below.
The Akropolis was built up over a long period, due in no small part to its partial destruction during the Greco-Persian Wars.
It was in the 5th century BCE, though, that the Akropolis received its most significant improvements. This period was an extremely prosperous time for Athens, both financially and culturally.
With a booming economy bolstered by trade and the Laurion silver mines, Perikles, the leader of Athens, financed a huge project to rebuild the citadel.
He enlisted the help of renowned artists like the sculptor Phidias, as well as the architects Iktinos and Kallikrates.
Together, they erected buildings like the Parthenon, and the Propylaea gateway.
Perikles' goal was to make the Akropolis into a glorious monument to the gods, and to mortal Athenians.
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The history of the Akropolis did not end with the Periklean building program.
In antiquity, fires and invasions often imperiled or even destroyed parts of the Akropolis, forcing Athenians and foreign admirers of the site to restore, embellish, and protect the remnants of Perikles' achievements.
For example, a ceremonial entrance in front of the Propylaia was built by F. Septimius Marcellinus ca. 280 BCE, with stone quarried from nearby monuments which had recently been destroyed by a Germanic invasion. it is known as Beulé Gate, named after its modern excavator.
The Akropolis had many uses throughout history. Under Byzantine rule, it hosted pilgrims seeking to visit the Parthenon, which had been transformed into a church. After the Fourth Crusade, it housed a Roman Catholic cathedral, as well as the palace of the LatinDuke of Athens. In Ottoman times, it acted as a fortress for protecting mosques, living quarters, and the harem of the local governor.
It was only in the first half of the 19th century CE that the newly independent modern Greek state decided to revive the Akropolis' Classical ruins. The medieval and modern buildings were removed, and the site's restoration has been going on ever since.
Behind the Propylaea was the giant bronze statue of Athena Promachos, or "Athena who fights on the front lines".
That name was reflected in the spear and shield the statue held in its hands.
It was erected in the mid 5th century BCE by the artist Phidas.
According to an inscription, it took nine years to make, and cost almost half a million drachmae.
At approximately ten meters tall, the statue was apparently so large that Pausanias claimed its helmet and spear tip could be seen from the sea near Cape Sounion, sixty kilometers away.
The ornamentation of the statue's shield was engraved by the metalsmith Mys.
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Athena, who was miraculously born from Zeus' head, was one of the most important deities in the Greek Pantheon. In the Bronze Age, she was an Aegean goddess who protected lucrative palatial and household activities, such as wool processing.
Later on, she became the patron deity of many ancient Greek cities, with Athens being only the best known among them. However, she still kept her place as the protector of artisans, spinners, weavers, smith, and the like.
The goddess had numerous epithets reflecting specific attributes, including Athena Polias (the protector of the city), Athena Ergane (the protector of crafts), and Athena Promachos ("fighting in the first rank", which alluded to her worship as a martial deity).
She was also conceived as the goddess of wisdom, and her most famous symbol was the owl, which was often engraved on Athenian coins and painted on vases.
The arrhephoroi were young girls between the ages of seven and eleven who were in charge of special rites.
A list of four girls were drafted by the assembly of citizens, from which the high magistrate, the archon basileus, chose two to serve as arrhephoroi for the year.
The girls lived in a house on the Akropolis. They were in charge of carrying sacred objects, and weavubg the peplos of Athena.
The peplos was a sacred robe offered to Athena during Panathenaia, a festival held in her honor.
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The arrhephoroi were selected on the basis of noble birth, so only high status girls had the privilege of serving Athena during the feasts of the Arrhephoria and the Panathenaia.
Pausanias wrote that two girls—whose designation meant "Bearers of Mysteries (Sacred Offerings)"—performed a special rite during the Arrhephoria. Their main duty was to descend from the Akropolis to a precinct of Aphrodite, carrying sacred objects on their heads given to them by the priestess of Athena. Once at their destination, they left the objects and received something else in return. Neither the arrhephoroi nor the priestess knew what any of the objects were, as they were always covered.
The arrhephoroi's other duty was to assist the temple's priestess in the sacred act of weaving Athena's peplos (garment). This ritual took place over 9 months, before the garment was finally offered to Athena at the Panathenaia.
Employing young, inexperienced arrhephoroi guaranteed the purity of the sacred robe. It also gave the girls the chance to learn how to spin and weave, which were two most important tasks required of Greek women.
The Erechtheion was an atypical temple.
It was dedicated not only to Athens Polias, but also to Kekrops, the mythical founder of Athens, his son Erechtheos, and even Poseidon, the sea god who challenged Athena for possession of the city.
The temple was divided into sections.
The eastern part housed a statue dedicated to Athena, while the western section jointy belonged to Poseidon and Erechtheos. Meanwhile, King Kekrop's grave was believed to be under the Karyatid Porch. Under the temple was a crypt that was said to contain the sacred snakes of Athena.
The snakes may have had a sweet tooth, because the priestesses of Athena allegedly fed them honey cakes.
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The Erechtheion's North Court was a cloistered area where Athenians probably performed two specific religious rituals related to the festivals of Plynteria and Kallynteria.
On Plynteria, the olivewood statue of Athena Polias was brought out of the temple, undressed, washed, and cleaned by two maidens, who also washed its garments. Then, on Kallynteria, the statue was re-dressed, re-decked, and returned to its holy place.
These two feasts — which had numerous funerary connotations — are always connected in the accounts of ancient writers. Athenians believed they were unlucky days because the goddess was "otherwise occupied", and they accordingly avoided undertaking important activities until the statue was back in the temple.
The Parthenon is one of the most well-known buildings in the world, and an enduring symbol of Ancient Greek civilization.
While it is located on the Akropolis, the building is not a traditional temple
It was built by the sculptor Phidias and the architects Kallikrates and Iktinos as a great monument to the glory of the city of Athens.
That glory is evident in its many carvings. One of the most craved monuments in Greek architecture, the Parthenon's decorations depict several mythological scenes.
These include the birth of Athena, her fight against Poseidon for the patronage of Athens, the god's battle with the giants and the procession of the Great Panathenaia.
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The Parthenon was built and decorated between 447 and 432 BCE, and the worship of Athena went on for nearly one millennium, although the building was affected by the destruction caused by Germanic invaders in the 3rd century CE.
In approximately 590 BCE, it was converted into a Christian Greek church dedicated to Maria Parthenos—the Virgin Mary, and the new protector of Athens. The church became the fourth most important pilgrimage destination in the Byzantine Empire, after Constantinople, Ephesus, and Thessalonica.
After the Latin soldiers of the Fourth Crusade captured Constantinople in 1204 CE, Athens became a Crusader duchy for two and half centuries, and the Orthodox church became the Catholic Cathedral of Our Lady.
The Ottoman conquest of 1458 CE transformed the Parthenon once again: this time, it became an Islamic mosque.
Although refurbishments and addtions were made to the building throughout its many iterations, the continued Christian and Muslim activity within the Parthenon helped preserve the monument better than many other ancient structures.
Unfortunately, in 1687 CE, during the Venetian siege of the Ottoman fortress on the Akropolis, a cannon ball shot struck the Parthenon, which was being used to store gunpowder. The roof was blown apart, three walls were severely damaged, and several columns and metopes fell to the ground, as well as most of the sculptures on the pediments and the frieze.
The plan of the Parthenon, drawn in 1879 with its two rooms, the bigger cella and the smaller treasury
The Parthenon's inner chamber, or cella, contained a massive statue of Athena that was considered to be one of the sculptor Phidias' greatest masterpieces.
The statue was chryselephantine, a combination of gold and ivory.
To justify the steep cost of its construction, Perikles told Athenians that the statue was a gold reserve which could be disassembled in times of economic distress.
>The cella also allegedly contained a pool whose main purpose was to control the room's humidity, which helped preserve the statue's ivory.
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Some researchers have hypothesized that the Parthenon's statue of Athena cost almost as much as the building itself. Unfortunately, the statue was either destroyed by a fire, or brought to Constantinopole in late Roman times, where all trace of it was lost.
Fortunately, descriptions from historians like Plutarch and Pausanias, as well as smaller copies like the marble Varvakeion statuette, allow for detailed reconstruction.
The goddess was armed with a triple-crested helmet featuring a sphinx and two griffins, a big circular shield in her left hand, and a spear. She held a winged Nike two meters tall in her right hand, while a huge sacred snake was coiled between her left foot and the shield. She wore a typical peplos robe tucked into a belt, and on her chest was a snake-ridged aegis displaying the head of Medusa.
Today, a modern replica of the statue stands in a copy of the Parthenon in Nashville, Tennessee.
Athen's treasury was located in the Parthenon, where it was believed to be protected by Athena herself.
The treasury contained objects of great value acquired from different conquests, as well as a mass of minted silver coins and various offerings to Athena.
Perikles also decided to move the entirety of the Delian League's treasure to the Parthenon in 454 BCE. This was a great testament to Athen's power over the rest of Greece.
The riches were divided into two parts: the demosia, which belonged to the city, and the hiera chremata, which was dedicated to the goddess and only used for religious purposes.
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At the height of its power, Athens' two main sources of revenue were the silver mines of Laurion, and the contributions paid by the allied cities of the Delian League.
The Delian League began in 478 BCE as an alliance of around 150 Hellenic cities, all headed by Athens. Its aim was to free the Greek cities under Persian oppression. The allies, whose number eventually grow to 300 as a consequence of numerous victories, contributed troops and money, the later of which was stored in the sanctuary of Apollo at Delos, a small holy island in the Aegean.
After the Persians were defeated, the allies started to resent Athens and its constant demand for troops and money. Athens ruthlessly quelled every revolt, and transferred the allied treasury to the Akropolis, gradually transforming the League into its own empire.
In fact, part of Sparta's success during the Peloponnesian War was determined by their promise to give the Athenians "allies" their freedom back, which earned the city lots of support.
Aspasia:And what did you think of the Akropolis? It truly is quite something, isn't it? A sacred sanctuary and an architectural marvel, all in one. If you have any questions, don't hesitate to ask.
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Mycenae
Wander the remnants of Mycenae, a place that was in ruins even in the time of antiquity.
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The quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles, oil painting by Gaulli Giovanni Battista (1639-1709)
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Gods of Olympia
Discover Olympia's splendor under the watchful eye of the gods.
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The Agora of Athens
Walk through Athens' most popular meeting place, and discover its vibrant markets and monumenmts.
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The Oracle of Delphi
Discover the marvelous oracular site of Delphi and learn about its importance.
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Piraeus
Tour the bustling port of Piraeus
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Map of the Piraeus, from Pausanias' Description of Greece
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Sanctuary of Asklepios at Epidauros
Tour the Sanctuary of Asklepios and receive a primer on ancient Greek medicine.
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Hippokrates showing Epidauros, concept art by Caroline Soucy
The ill and infirm came to this sanctuary to pray and offer sacrifices to Asklepios, the god of medicine.
According to myth, Asklepios was once a mortal physician who eventually became a god.
He had many sanctuaries across Greece, but the most famous was in Epidauros.
When pilgrims passed through the entrance of the sanctuary, they could read this inscription:
"When you enter the abode of the god which smells of incense, you must be pure. And thought is pure when you think with piety".
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Asklepios, like most Greek gods, had a backstory wreathed in fire and blood. He was the product of an affair between the god Apollo and a mortal named Koronis. Apollo killed Koronis after discovering she had been unfaithful, and ordered her body burned on a funeral pyre. However, Apollo rescued his dead lover's unborn child from her womb before the fire consumed her body.
Apollo gave the baby to the centaur Chiron, who raised Asklepios and taught him how to practice medicine.
The healing cult of Asklepios was first attested to in Epidauros, but slowly spread to different cities, exploding in popularity from the 4th century BCE onwards.
Medical steles constituted a sort of hub between medicine, religion, and the dinvine.
They were slabs with inscriptions that praised Asklepios' virtues and merit, and described his methods of healing.
The inscriptions relayed the dreams patients had within the abaton, one of the most important buildings in the sanctuary.
The steles outlined the patient's name, their disease, and how they were cured by Asklepios.
They were probably written by the sanctuary's priests, or at least under the priests' supervision.
Asklepios was a complex deity. In addition to being a god, he was also a trained physician and disciple of the centaur Chiron.
The temples of Epidauros, aquarelle by Alphonse-Alexandre Defrasse (1860-1939)
Asklepios resurrects Hippolyte, oil painting by Jean Daret (1613/1615-1668)
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