Tours: School of Greece - Philosophy

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Receive a crash course in ancient Greek philosophy.

Opening RemarksPhilosophy and GreeceKynosargesTeaching ValuesImportance of PhilosophySokrates and the SophistsClassical PhilosophersClosing Remarks

• Aspasia: Welcome to the gymnasium of the Kynosarges, one of the many places where philosophers came to enrich the mind and enlighten the spirit.

("Who are you?")

• Aspasia: My name is Aspasia. Though I am not original from Athens, I have climbed to the top of its social ladder using my wit and intellect. I've even earned the love of Perikles, one of the most powerful men in the city. The mind truly is a beautiful thing.

("What do you think of this place?")

• Aspasia: There is no better setting for learning than in a quiet place far away from the commotion of the city.

("Let's begin the tour.")

• Aspasia: Education held a very important place in Greek society. The most prominent educators were philosophers, whose teachings ranged from everyday rituals to the make-up of the universe. Once your tour is complete, come fine me, and we can discuss what you've learned. Farewell for now, wanderer.

Bronze head of a philosopher / 1st cent. BCE (Hellenistic Greece)

Philosophy comes from the Greek word philosophia, or "love of wisdom".

This concept was in direct contrast with philochrematia — love of money — and philotimia — love of honor.

As of second-half of the 5th century BCE, Athens was known as Greece's capital of philosophy.

Due to the rise of democracy, there was an increasing need for education beyond the basic subjects of elementary school.

Athenian citizens needed to be able to participate in various functions of the democratic state, such as being elected for office, proposing new laws, engaging in military decisions, or simply defending their rights.

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Greek philosophy was born in Ionia after the 7th-6th centuries BCE. The first philosophers dedicated themselves to natural philosophy and were called physikoi or physiologoi.

The discourses of the physikoi were written in verse, similar to Homeric poems. But while epic poems explained the world in terms of gods and mythology, physikoi explored more rational causes for natural phenomena.

The founder of the so-called Milesian school of natural philosphy was Thales, who declared that water was the principle substance of all things. Thales was the first to propose a material and rational element as a principle of the world.

The Ephesian school was also interested in the natural world. Heraklitos of Ephesus posited that all things in the universe are in a state of perpetual flux connected by a logical structure called logos. According to Heraklitos, fire was the first principle of the cosmos.

Due to Persian military expansion and political troubles, some Ionian intellectuals had to migrate and take refuge in Southern Italy, such as Pythagoras of Samos. Pythagoras founded a school in the town of Kroton, where had numerous disciples, including the legendary wrestler Milo of Kroton. Pythagoras is credited with many mathematical and geometrical discoveries, and he also belived in the transmigration of the soul after the death.

All these pre-Sokratic philosophers were polymaths. Their philosophy was a mix of cosmology, mathematics, geometry, medicine and ethics, and the3 later sophists were inspired by the all-encompassing nature of their teachings.

Bust of Antisthenes. Marble copy of a Greek original from the 3rd cent. BCE (Hellenistic Greece)

Originally, Athens had no official school buildings for higher education.

Sophists and philosophers taught either in private homes, or in public spaces like the theater.

To recruit young pupuls for long-term curricula, they also held classes in the gymnasia, where young Athenians underwent physical training.

The Kynosarges was a sanctuary to Herakle slocated in the south suburb of Athens.

At the beginning of the 4th century BCE, Antisthenes used this sanctuary as a teaching spot for his school of philosophy, the aptly called Cynicism.

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Perikles implemented many cultural policies that helped transform Athens into the center Greek culture. He invited philosophers like Anaxagoras and Protagoras, as well as other intellectuals, to gather in the city. As a result, many great philosophers were born in Athens, the most famous of which were Sokrates and Plato.

The philosophical talent in Athens attractede pupils from all over the Greek world. For example, Aristippos came from Kyrene to follow Sokrates' teachings, while Diogenes came from Sinope to study under Antisthenes.

Originally, philosophers and sophists taught in private houses, gymnasia, or public places. But during the 4th century BCE, permanent schools of philosophy began appearing in Athens, with Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lykaium being the first philosophical institutions. The schools included gardens, rooms for teachers, students, and guests, and a library. However, not all philosophers approved of institutional education. Case in point: Diogenes the Cynic, who lived in a barrel and delivered his teachings in public space.

During the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, Athens was filled with philosophers, books, debates, and ideas. This lasted until the 6th century CE, when the last philosophers of Athens were expelled by an edict from the Byzantine Emperor Justinian.

Scene of school on red-figure / 5th cent. BCE (Classical Greece)

Any free citizen was allowed to involve themselves in the Athenian democratic process.

However, to truly influence the flow of politics, their speech and rhetoric skills had to be impeccable.

As a result, many Sophists taught subjects like logic, reason, and eloquence.

These were meant to help students achieve aretê, or excellence.

But this specific concept of excellence was often challenged, especially by other philosophers.

For example, Plato, Sokrates, and Isokrates preferred a more moral approach, and argued that rhetoric should be used as a means to serve the greater good.

Sokrates and Plato went even further, declaring that philosophy and wisdom were not only useful tools, but also ethical virtues.

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Sokrates was born in 469 BCE. His philosophy can be summarized by his exemplary lifestyle.

When he was forty, the Oracle of Delphi said Sokrates was the wisest of all living men. He was puzzled by this statement because he believed he knew nothing, and from then on, he began an investigation into the truth of the Oracle's words by searching for someone wiser than him.

In Athens, he questioned famous people of all professions to test their knowledge. He went to politicians, orators, poets, rhapsodes, and sophists, and their conversations were always the same. Using irony and refutation, he proved these arrogant specialists did not know what they thought they knew. He also tried convincing his fellow citizens to scorn money, honor, and prestige, and to instead focus on improving the wealth of their souls.

Philosophy was Sokrates' only occupation. He never wrote any books, and preferred to teach orally. Unfortunately, this did not make him much money, and he allegedly spent his whole life in poverty, wearing the same coat and always travelling barefoot.

In 399 BCE, the city of Athens charged with two offenses: not believing in the city's gods, and corrupting the youth. He was sentenced to death, and condemned to drink a poisonous beverage of hemlock. During his stay in prison, some friends tried to convince him to escape, but Sokrates refused, preferring to comply with the city's laws. Wise to the end, Sokrates chose to die instead of giving up his philosophical lifestyle.

Plato teaching in the gardens of the Academy, painting by Joshua Cristall (1767-1847)

Ancient Greek philosophy was multidisciplinary in nature.

In addition to wisdom and logic, philosophers also studied and taught math, geometry, music theory, and even medicine.

For example, the philosopher Prodikos wrote a treatise called "On Human Nature" where he outlined various explanations on human physiology.

Philosophy's influence was also great enough to affect medicine.

Hippokratic physicians were known to incorporate philosophical ideas into their work, and the treatise "On Airs" seems to be influencede by pre-Sokratic theories on air being the first principle of the universe.

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The Platonic Academy was founded in 388/387 BCE, outside the walls of Athens. Its entrance had an inscription that said: "Let no man enter who has not studied geometry", and it is clear from the Platonic dialogues that Plato and his school spent lots of time studying math.

Many mathematicians and geometers taught or worked in Plato's school, including Archytas, a Pythagorean philosopher, and Eudoxos of Knidos, a geometer and astronomer.

The Academy gave students the opportunity to develop new theories in mathematics and astronomy. For example, Eudoxos devised mathematical models of the planetary motions, and Speusippos — Plato's nephew and eventualy successor as the head of the Academy — conceived a model of the physical universe that involved geometric figures.

Marble statuette of Sokrates / 2nd cent. BCE (Hellenistic Greece)

The famed philosopher Sokrates had an ambiguous relationship with Sophists.

In Plato's dialogues, Sokrates is potrayed as being in constant opposition with the famous Sophists of his time.

Aristophanes' comedy "The Clouds", meanwhile, depicts Sokrates as a Sophist himself, constantly demanding payment for his teachings.

Sokrates was in fact very poor, and made no money off his teachings.

He also differed from the Sophists in that while they only taught aristocratic youths, Sokrates taught everyone regardless of station.

Unfortunately, his controversial ideas and practices did not sit well with the city of Athens, and he was eventually tried for impiety.

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Nowadays, the term "sophist" has negative connotations, and refers to the use of bad and fallacious arguments. This pejorative view of the word can be traced back to Plato, who saw sophists as his main adversaries. However, "sophist" is actually derived from "sophia" — the Greek word for wisdom — and originally meant "wise man".

In ancient Greece, the sophists represented a new professional group that made a living off teaching specialized subjects like rhetoric and persuasion. Their instruction was meant to encourage critical thinking about topics like morality, politics and religion. However, the sophists were not an organized collective, and members taught their own individual beliefs.

Because they taught in return for a fee, sophists' schools were only attended by those who could afford it — usually members of the aristocracy and wealthy families. However, they also showcased their skills at different public events. For example, the sophist Gorgias once delivered Athens' annual funeral oration honoring the victims of war, and Hippias presented at Olympia on multiple occasions.

Protagoras of Abdera is generally considered as the first professional sophist. He trained his pupils to argue from both points of view because he believed that truth could not be limitd to one side of an argument. He claimed to be able "to make the weaker argument stronger", and is the author of the famous asying: "Man is the measure of all things", meaning truth is relative and differs according to each individual. He also opposed traditional religious values by defending an agnostic view of the gods, saying "Concerning the gods, I have no means of knowing whether they exist or not, nor of what sort they may be, because of the obscurity of the subject, and the brevity of human life."

Head of Plato, Roman copy of a Greek original / 427-347 BCE(Classical Greece)

Philosophy was not only a collection of ideas, but a way of life.

According to philosopher Pierre Hadot, his ancient counterparts had a daily regimen of "spiritual exercises" to combat their passions, doubts, and illusory beliefs.

These exercises included meditation on death, contemplation of nature, or speaking with a friend or mentor.

Philosophers also followed specific dress codes and diets.

They were also part of a community of masters and students. These communities were created and strengthened in schools.

Plato founded such a school in the early 4th century BCE, when he purchased a property in a grove just outside of Athens.

The school was designed to groom students into "philosopher citizens" who coudl eventually rule the city in a measured and fair manner.

It followed its own rules, and was open to both male and female disciples.

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Aristotle was born in 384 BCE in Stagira. He came to Athens at the age of seventeen and studied under Plato at the Academy. He spent some twenty years in this school until Plato's death in 347 BCE. After travelling through Greece, he settled at the court of Philip II of Macedon in 343 BCE to tutor a young Alexander the Great.

Aristotle came back to Athens in 335 BCE to set up his own school, the Lykeion, which became the city's second center of learning. The members of his school were called Peripatics, or "those who walk around". This was either because Aristotle taught while walking around the premises, or because there was a covered walkway called a "peripatos" in the gymnasium of his school.

At the Lykeion, Aristotle set up a library that would become a model of the library of Alexandria. Research took place on a large scale, as evidenced by the titles of Aristotle' books; he engaged in physics, psychology, politics, zoology, and literature. Famous disciples also participated in his research programs: Theophrastos of Eresos wrote on botany and stones, Eudemos of Cyprus composed a history of mathematics, and Aristoxenos of Tarentum wrote a book on harmonics.

After the death of Alexander, Aristotle was denounced for impiety and had to flee Athens. He took refuge in Euboea, where he died in 322 BCE.

For Aristotle, happiness (eudaimonia) was the ultimate goal in life, and money, honor, and pleasure were only means to reach that happiness, not ends in themselves. Furthermore, since it is rationality that distinguishes humans from plants and animals, our purpose and function is to use reason. A happy life is thus a life of reason, and according to Aristotle, the life of a theoretical inquiry is the happiest life of all.

• Aspasia: I cann tell my the crease in your brow that you're already puzzling over the new things you've learned. Don't be embarrassed. Even the wiset among us need to ask questions before they search for answers. Is there anything else you'd like to do?

("I'm ready for the quiz.") ("Take on the next suggested tour.") ("Take me on a random tour.") ([LEAVE] "That's all for now.")

• Aspasia: As you wish, wanderer. Safe travels.