Head and neck of horse from the reverse type of an hemidrachm of Pharsalos / 400 BCE (Classical Greece)
Makedonia's banner features the head of a horse. In northern Greece—especially in Thessaly and Makedonia—horse breeding was an important activity and a major source of wealth.
When Makedonia increased its power under King Phillip II—the father of Alexander the Great—horses played a crucial role in the army. Companion cavalry, the elite cavalry of the Makedonians, has been regarded as the best of the ancient world.
The inspiration of the banner came from a coin from Pharsalos in Thessaly depicting an artistic-rendering of a horse's head. Horses are very common in iconography, especially in coinage.
Greek warrior dying, from the temple of Athena-Aphaia in Aegina / 490 BCE (Classical Greece)
The Peloponnesian War began over two main stories. One is the Athenians having entered into conflict with an ally of Sparta, the great city of Korinth, which had tried to take over one of Athens' allies, the city of Potidaia. The other is the so-called "Megarian decree" which was passed by Athens in order to forbid all trade between Megaris and the Athenian empire.
As a result, the Spartans called for a great congress in Sparta where they conferred with their allies. The Megarians were pushing towards war, since they were greatly affected by the decree, and so were the Korinthians. The king of Sparta, Archidamos II, advised for a more cautious policy, trying to prevent the outbreak of the war, or at least to make sure that Sparta was better prepared to face the Athenians who ruled the seas in an open confrontation.
The war that would ensue pit two essentially different powers and styles of warfare against each other. Sparta and their allies were based mainly in the Peloponnese, and their force consisted especially of land armies of hoplites—the only maritime power of this League was Korinth. The Athenians, on the other hand, had become a maritime power during the struggle against Persia, and remained so in the aftermath.
Silver drachm of Amphipolis in Makedonia / 369-368 BCE (Classical Greece)
In providing for their fleet and for the public building program, the main problem the Athenians faced was finding timber of first-class quality, and particularly timber of long lengths. From the late 5th century BCE at least, and throughout the 4th century BCE, there is ample evidence that Athens relied primarily on Makedonia for her ship-timber.
As for the timber needed for housing, the rich, who were more concerned with quality, possibly preferred the greater variety and finer quality materials available from Makedonia, Italy, or Asia Minor. In addition, what Attika was unabl
Herakles holding the mane of one of Diomedes' mares and preparing to strike it with his club while Diomedes lies prostate before him on the ground. Scene from a reverse of a bronze coin of Alexandria / 142-143 CE (Roman period)
The eighth labor of Herakles was to bring back the mares of Diomedes. Diomedes, the king of Thrace and son of Ares and Cyrene, fed his horses human flesh. This drove the horses mad, making them wild.
Herakles captured the beasts with the help of his young companion Abderos, and left the horses with him while he chased down Diomedes. In Herakles's absence, the crazed horses ate the young boy. Seeking revenge, Herakles then fed Diomedes to the horses, and founded the city of Abdera nearby in his friend's honor. When Eurystheas received the horses, he dedicated them to Hera.
Articulated Apulian bronze cuirass. Southern Italian models did not feature shoulder protection / 4th cent. BCE (Classical Greece)
In the Classical era, metal armor coexisted alongside lighter cuirasses (corselets) called "linothoraxes". This was because procuring an actual set of bronze armor was beyond the means of many citizens—especially in poorer cities. Linothoraxes were also sometimes preferred in situations where hoplites had to be Lighter and more mobile.
The linothorax consisted of a linen breastplate that could be strengthened with shoulder pieces, bronze scales, or bronze-sheeted mantling. To protect the Lower abdomen and the groin, two layers of pteruges—"wings" in ancient Greek—were attached to the bottom edge of the armor.
Linen armor was one of the oldest types of armor in Greece. It even appears in "The Iliad"—a story that is believed to have taken place long before the Classical period.
Iron macharai, also known as a kopis / 5th-4th cent. BCE (Classical Greece)
If a hoplite's spear broke or if he had to fight hand to hand—as was the case for the 300 Spartans in the final stages of the battle of Thermopylai—he could always fall back on his sword.
In the 4th century BCE, the most common sword had a thick cruciform hilt with a blade that swelled near the tip. Hoplites carried their sword in a sheath under their Left arm, enabling them to quickly seize their weapon with their right hand. Ancient Greeks had specific names to refer to different types of swords, but it's difficult for modern historians to match these names with their corresponding weapon. While "xiphos" was the standard name for swords in ancient Greek, words like "machaira" and "kopis" were also used. It is believed that the previous two words may have referred to recurved swords, while xiphos described straight-bladed weapons.
Red-figure calpis depicting the arms of an hoplite: helmet, shield, sword and cuirass / 500-475 BCE (Classical Greece)
A hoplite's equipment consisted of a bronze cuirass (or lighter armor], bronze greaves, a spear, and a sword.
Although the comic playwright Aristophanes was probably exaggerating when he wrote that crafted armor cost 1,000 drachmae—about ten times the monthly wages of a skilled craftsman—the bronze-muscle cuirass was one of the costliest pieces of a hoplite's equipment. As such, only the wealthiest individuals could afford it.
A soldier's body armor could be completed by a pair of greaves to protect their shins. The greaves were made of hammered bronze, and had to be well-adjusted to the hoplite's legs. They also had to be made thin so as not to weigh the soldier down. Since shin greaves were also expensive, many lower-class citizens opted not to buy them, instead purchasing armor that covered more vital parts of their body.
Altogether, an entire set of armor was known as a "panoply".
Panoply of warriors, from the arming of the Seven before attacking Thebes, red-figure kylix attributed to Makron (5th cent. BCE) / c. 480 BCE (Classical Greece)
Hoplites were heavily armored infantrymen. Their most important piece of equipment was arguably the "aspis", a round shield large enough to protect both its wearer and the man to the left of him. The aspis was light and could effectively parry spear and sword thrusts. However, according to its depiction on ancient vases, it was ineffective against javelins and arrows.
Hoplite helmets were similarly designed to be light, but they could endure direct blows and offered a reasonable amount of protection. There were many varieties of helmet, but the most widespread seems to have been the Korinthian helmet.
Made of a single sheet of bronze that covered much of the head and neck, the Korinthian helmet offered only a small, t-shaped opening at the front to allow soldiers to see and breathe. Because the helmet was closed in on itself, it most likely impaired the sight and hearing of the soldiers who wore it.
Helmets could also be adorned with crests of dyed horsehair to make the hoplites wearing them look more imposing.
Men holding shields on a red-figure cup / 5th cent. BCE (Classical Greece)
Hoplites mainly fought using spears.
Called "dory" in ancient Greek, the spear was a wooden shaft with a Length of up to three meters. It was probably made from the wood of ash trees, since the trees provided strong material that was also light enough to be handled with ease. The spear-head and butt were manufactured in metal workshops. The spear-head was usually made of iron—but could also be made of bronze—and was fixed to the slender end of the wooden shaft with pitch or nails. The spear-butt allowed the weapon to be planted in the ground when not being used. It's possible that the spear-butt could also have served as a spare head, but there's little evidence to support this theory.
The spear also had a hand grip which may have been made of leather.
