Labyrinth built for the Minotaur, from the reverse of a drachm of Knossos / 300-270 BCE (Hellenistic Greece)
The area of Messara is the largest plain of the island of Krete. The symbol of the region is inspired by the coins of Knossos, which bear a labyrinth on the reverse, referencing the famous Kretan Minotaur myth.
The minotaur was half-human, half-bull. King Minos of Krete made the mistake of sacrificing a bull, and thus angered Poseidon. The god then instilled "passion" for the bull into Minos' wife, who later gave birth to the minotaur.
The minotaur was kept in the labyrinth built by Daidalos. On a regular basis, fourteen young men and women were given to the beast in tribute, until the hero Theseus killed him.
Herakles standing right, holding club overhead and preparing to strike the Kretan bull, which he holds by a horn. From the obverse of a dildrachm from Selinos / 455-440 BCE (Classical Greece)
The seventh labor of Herakles was to kill a great bull that had destroyed crops and property in Krete.
Herakles went to King Minos of Krete, who gave him permission to get rid of the bull. Herakles managed to capture the beast, suppressing it with his hands, but he ultimately didn't kill it. Instead, he shipped the bull to Eurystheas so he could confirm that the labor was successful, and then the animal was released.
Koulourai of Malia Palace / 1800-1700 BCE (Minoan period)
Koulourai are large, stone-walled pits that can be found in a number of major sites in Krete, including Knossos, Malia, and Phaistos. All of them were constructed around 1850-1750 BCE.
While the exact purpose of the koulourai is still debated, there are three prominent theories as to what they were used for. Arthur Evans believed they functioned as refuse or garbage pits. Conversely, Chapouthier and Pernier theorized that they were used as ancient cisterns. However, this theory is flawed since kouroulai did not have the same waterproofing as other Knossian structures of the time.
The most widely accepted theory is that koulourai were used to store grain. This assumption gains even more ground when paired with the theory that Minoan palaces were not palaces at all, but massive agricultural redistribution centers.
Fisherman, holding a fishing rod, seated on rock with a basket nearby, scene from the reverse of a bronze coin from Carteia (Iberia) / After 44 BCE (Roman period)
In the "History of Animals" by Aristotle, he provides a guide to the species present in the Mediterranean: 105 fish, twenty-four shells, twenty-four marine or crustacean animals, and five cetaceans and amphibious animals.
Philosophers and moralists had little regard for fishermen. Plato deemed the activity unworthy of a well-born man. But there was solidarity between sailors, and the specificity of the trade was important enough to even become a Literary theme; it's known that Aischylos had written a piece entitled "Diktyoulkoi" (Net-Haulers), and Menander wrote a piece called "The Fishermen".
These authors were much more interested in the psychology of the fisherman than the real sociology of the profession. A fisherman is often alone, practicing his profession all year long. He has to be intelligent and cunning, but he also must be lucky.
Fishing scene from a red-slip bowl showing fishermen pulling a net, and fishes and a hippocamp around the boat / c. 400 CE (Roman period)
Navigation on the Mediterranean was difficult. Most sailing depended on the winds, and was done in the summer. The storm season started in late September or early October, and ended in late February or early March. During these months, navigation was highly dangerous. In addition, the nature of the currents made certain areas dangerous. The sea monsters Charybdis and Skylla in "The Odyssey" would be the pictorial representation of the strong current of the Strait of Messina that separates the western tip of the south of Magna Graecia with Sicily.
There were several methods of fishing in ancient Greece. Plato and Oppian discussed fishing with nets, laces, baskets, hooks or tridents, and angling. t was also possible to fish for mollusks, shellfish, crustaceans, and fish thrown from the sea to the shores.
In some cases, the fish was caught by hand, like in octopus fishing. Fishing could also be done with lanterns - as fish were attracted to the light source - or could simply be "picked" during sleep.
There were also more unusual methods, such as the smell fishery where fish were attracted with foul food, excrement, or salted octopus. There was also the method of "poisoning fishing", where plants like hellebore or conia were used to catch fish and octopus.
Inspired by The Art of Assassin's Creed Odyssey, by Kate Lewis, with courtesy from Titan Books.
(Behind the scenes)
The seventh biome of the game, the Hero explores the underwater world of the Aegean Sea looking for treasure and artifacts. The sea teems with all manner of life including dangerous sharks and beautiful corals. "By exploring the depths of the ocean the player can choose to take a dive amongst long forgotten ruins. Here they can take on fights with deadly sharks as they search for hidden treasures," adds Benjamin Hall. Featuring shipwrecks, ruins and remnants of ancient civilizations as shown in these concept arts by Hugo Puzzuoli, this biome is just as diverse and intricate as the rest.
Messenia
Scene of a foundry, with artisan stoking a fire while another uses a bellows, from a red-figure cup / 490-480 BCE (Classical Greece)
Charcoal is the solid residue that remains when wood - or other organic matter - is "carbonized" under controlled
conditions in a closed space. Very Little air is allowed to come into contact with the fuel during the carbonization process. If this condition is not observed, the wood (or other raw material) is simply reduced to ash and its fuel value is lost.
This means that transport costs are much lower for locally produced charcoal than for Locally gathered wood - an important consideration for a product whose production cost consists almost exclusively of the labor invested in it. It's also noteworthy that charcoal creates a much hotter, more even, and more easily controlled heat than wood, which means that itis much better suited for domestic cooking and grilling and a virtual "sine qua non" for blacksmithing and particularly ironworking.
Zeus standing right, hurling thunderbolt, from the reverse of a tetradrachm of Messene / 183-182 BCE (Hellenistic Greece)
Messenia's history was linked closely with Sparta's. The region was long-occupied by the Spartans - its population was enslaved as helots.
Independent cities emerged only after the Theban invasion of the Peloponnese in the 4th century BCE. After the defeat of the Spartan army at the battle of Leuktra in 371 BCE, the helots of Messenia revolted against Sparta. Epaminondas, the Theban general, supported the building of the fortified city of Messene.
The banner of Messenia is inspired by the coins of Messene, showing Zeus brandishing his thunderbolt. Zeus had an important sanctuary on Mount Ithome, which was included in the walls of Messene.
Inspired by The Art of Assassin's Creed Odyssey, by Kate Lewis, with courtesy from Titan Books.
(Behind the scenes)
Waging war in the ocean was a brutal affair in Ancient Greece, The ships, mostly triremes, were simply designed and unstable, especially in high seas and adverse weather. The development team looked at historical accounts of naval warfare from the period to recreate the drama and danger in game.
Blue-clad Athenians have their ship cleaved in two in concept art by Hugo Puzzuoli.
Marble bust of Thucydides, Roman copy of a 5th cent. BCE original / 2nd cent. CE (Roman period)
Thucydides was an Athenian aristocrat, general, and historian who chronicled the history of the Peloponnesian War. While he does not mention his predecessor Herodotos directly, it is probable that Thucydides was influenced by the so-called "Father of History".
Thucydides's account of history, however, focused less on the mythic origins of the Greeks, and instead provided a perspective on how much the Greek world had evolved since its beginning - and how much it would continue to evolve into the future. His work also provided insight into the educational and cultural development of Athens. Thucydides was a skilled orator trained by some of the best speakers of his time. Because of this, many of the most important moments in his historical writings are presented as speeches.
Siege scene from the monument of the Nereides. Soldiers besieging the city climb a ladder on the wall / 390-370 BCE (Classical Greece)
Several Greek authors have left us works on siege tactics or on how to build war machines. However, artillery such as catapults were not yet invented at the time of the Peloponnesian War - it would take another century for them to appear.
The main war machines used at this time, called mechanai, were mostly scaling-ladders, battering rams, and tortoises. There are two known instances of incendiary machines, but we don't know exactly how they worked. The Thebans used one against the Athenians at Delium in 424 BCE, and the Spartans at Torone in 423 BCE.
Black-figure cup with field work scene and a depiction of a cart used to transport merchandise / 530 BCE (Archaic Greece)
Woodcutting and charcoal making typically took place in the forest. Charcoals were then bagged and transported to private homes or presumably nearby markets. In wood-rich areas, local production of wood for common use appears to have been either in the hands of individuais, or potentially middlemen who might collect wood from various sources, then reselLit at the local agora. The elite's access to such wood may have been outside the market if their landholdings provided suitable material), except for the purchase of exotic materials.
The full range of woodworking tools and techniques employed by wood workers of the ancient Mediterranean and the practical knowledge concerning wood species and their most valuable applications attest to the importance of wood technologies for agriculture and hunting, domestic life, trade, warfare, and leisure activities. It is worth mentioning that the tools and the techniques employed by the end of the Classical and Roman period would show little change until the appearance of the Industrial Revolution fifteen centuries later.
Naxos
Goddess at an altar offering a libation, interior scene from a kylix / 470 BCE (Classical Greece)
The ancients often made bees and honey into symbols related to the deities. Honey was considered heavenly since it never expired, and was a typical offering placed on altars for the gods. These offerings were given to rustic deities such as Pan and Priape, who were protectors of beekeepers, but also to Chthonian deities worshiped in mystery cults such as Hermes, Dionysos, and Demeter. Honey and bees were also a symbol of resurrection.
Honey was considered a gift – a remnant of the Golden Age – that the gods kindly gave to men. It guaranteed long life and good health. In this way, it was connected to nectar and ambrosia - drinks of the immortal gods. In childhood, Zeus was nourished with honey and milk. Mead was seen as a substitute for these divine drinks. Honey's religious symbolism was all the more important since it could be food for newborns - a young Plato was said to be fed with honey - but also for the dead.
Kantharos with lid, from the obverse type of a stater of Naxos / 520-490 BCE (Archaic Greece)
Naxos was the largest island in the Kyklades. lts protective deity was Dionysos, god of wine, who was born on the island according to mythology. The money of Naxos served as model for the banner, and is linked with the god as the coins show a kantharos - a wine cup.
Naxos produced wine, but was more famous for its marble. It was exported and widely used. For example, it was used in Olympia and on the Akropolis in Athens. Its craftsmen were pioneers in the development of monumental marble sculptures and architecture.
Marble quarry of Aliki on the island of Thasos / 2016
Greek soil contains great geological diversity. Since the beginning of the Early Cycladic period, the Greeks used marble in architecture, sculpture, figurines, and more. The word marble, from the Greek term marmaros, means "resplendent stone". It quickly became a luxury furniture in Greek cities, and it played a big part in the Greek economy. Some regions stand out for their marble-related wealth, including Naxos, Paros, Thasos, Attika, the Peloponnese, and Euboea Island.
Marble is made up of different colors (red, pink, yellow), and each has a different texture (translucent, wavy, streaked, swirly, etc.). For example, Peloponnesian marble was red with touches of black. Pentelic marble, found near Athens, was greenish with a grainy pattern. The most prestigious marble of the time came from Paros, and was greyish white.
Traces of extraction left by the tools in the marble quarry of Aliki (Thasos) / 2016
In Naxos, ancient quarries were located on the Agios loannis hill on the north side of the island, with another one in the central region, Melanes.
In general, the quarrymen exploited natural fissures and applied pressure to extract massive blocks. They then drilled holes into the marble, drove wooden shafts into the holes, and poured water over the wood so it swelled and split off the desired blocks of stone.
In Naxos, whiter parts of the stone were preferred during the quarrying process, which had a direct impact on the price of this marble. Around 5000 m3 of the most prestigious Naxian marble was exported annually.
The workers carried the marble with cranes and rails. They moved it around with pullies, cranes, levers, rails, and inclined planes.
Obsidian Islands
Triskeles (which means three legs) from the reverse type of a stater of Melos / c. 600 BCE - 200 CE (Ancient Greece)
The banner of Melos is derived from a coin of the city, depicting the symbol of the triskeles; the name of this symbol literally means "three legs". It was sometimes used on coins, but more often on shields.
The larger meaning of this symbol is not clear, but an ancient epigram speaks of a triskeles on a shield that is supposed to frighten opponents—the bearer of this shield supposedly ran very fast.
This symbol is still in use today on the Sicilian flag, and that of the Isle of Man.
Herakles taking apples from the garden of the Hesperides. Scene from a black-figure amphora / 540 BCE (Archaic Greece)
The eleventh and twelfth labors of Herakles were tacked on at the end, since Eurystheas didn't recognize Herakles killing the Hydra as a labor because Iolaos helped him. Cleaning the stables was also ignored because Herakles was paid, and it was the rivers that did the actual cleaning work.
The eleventh labor required Herakles to steal apples from the garden of the Hesperides, the three nymphs of the evening. The garden was situated in the west of the world, in Northern Africa, and produced golden apples.
There, Herakles tricked Atlas into retrieving the apples for him. Although he proposed to hold up the heavens for a while in Atlas' stead, Herakles tricked the Titan and walked away with the fruit himself.
Pephka
Red-figure cup depicting a blacksmith hammering in his forge / 510-500 BCE (Archaic Greece)
The source material concerning weapon manufacturing in Ancient Greece is not prolific. However, we do know that as early as the 7th century BCE, more specialized-production centers emerged in regions already known for their metallurgical activities.
Chalkis, in Euboea, specialized in the production of swords, while Korinth was renowned for its bronze helmets - both crucially important elements of hoplite equipment. Sykyon, in the Peloponnese peninsula, provided the iron for the manufacture of Spartan weapons. Athens, famous especially for its cuirass workshops, was also an important location in the world of Greek weapons production.
During what's called the "Dark Ages" in Greek history (1200-800 BCE), a transition took place in weaponry. The material used switched from bronze to iron - a substance that was lighter, tougher, and able to take a sharper edge. Swords became shorter and larger than the preceding bronze specimens. Both conical helmets with ornamented crests and all shapes of shields may have also been made of that metal.
Around the 7th century BCE, a new tactical formation, the phalanx, gradually made its appearance in Greece. It marked the return of the use of bronze in weaponry. The new infantryman, the hoplite, was required to pay for his panoply, a set of weapons and pieces of equipment including a cuirass, greaves, helmet with cheek plates, shield, spear, and sword. Bronze was used to make all or some parts of the body armor, shield, and helmet, while the sword and spearhead were crafted with iron.
The costliness of the panoply made it difficult or altogether impossible for lower-class citizens to purchase one. Therefore, only members of the elite could afford the entire set.
Petrified Islands
Two confronted female heads with faces overlapping, reverse type of an electrum coin from Lesbos / 454-427 BCE (Classical Greece)
The banner of Lesbos, home of the famous poet Sappho, was inspired by one of the most interesting monetary types in antiquity.
Unlike others cities, Lesbos changed monetary types from one issuance to another. This provided great variety - notably this unusual depiction of two female heads overlapping.
Lesbos's cities were members of the Delian league from the start. They provided ships to the alliance, but then revolted in 428 BCE and the victorious Athenians sent clerouchs (settlers) to occupy the island.
Fortress of Eleuthera in Attika, bordering the territory of Boeotia / 370-360 BCE (Classical Greece)
Field camps were built at the end of a day's march to provide protection in case of a surprise enemy attack.
They were widely-used when attacking cities during sieges. The camps are where soldiers would eat, sleep, and store their weapons, food rations and spoils - often for months at a time. It's also where a soldier would take refuge when and if things went badly in battle.
Building a good fortified camp or fortifying a village or small city in the enemy's territory may have meant the difference between victory and defeat.
As sieges would stretch on, a good fortified camp meant that an army could safely remain in unfriendly lands and exert pressure on the enemy. This could be done by burning or taking their crops, by preventing resupply, or simply by exerting their demoralizing presence.
Establishing a fortified position in enemy lands in order to constantly raid it was a common tactic in the Peloponnesian War. Athens employed it at Pylos from 425 to 409 BCE, and so did the Spartans with a more devastating effect over a weakened Athens when they fortified Dekeleia from 413 to 404 BCE.
Hoplite practicing hepatoscopy (divination by the study of the liver) / 525-500 BCE (Archaic Greece)
Soldiers on the move mostly slept under the sky on beds of reeds, for in most cases tent materials were too great a burden.
They ate two meals a day - one at mid-day (except when battle was expected), and then dinner. They usually cooked these meatls themselves. In most cases, the meal consisted of maza, a sort of barley porridge. The Spartans did things differently; they had dedicated cooks in their armies.
When the soldiers need to relieve themselves, they simply went wherever they could outside of camp, as there was no special location for this act.
There was little in the way of entertainment in military camps. The Spartans, however, did have some techniques for avoiding boredom. After their regular practice and exercise, they had a sort of contest of singing songs by the poet Tyrtaios, and the winner received a prize in meat.
Even in a war camp, the gods had to be honored. Whenever possible, sacrifices were made and seers were consulted, often about the tides of battle.
Inspired by The Art of Assassin's Creed Odyssey, by Kate Lewis, with courtesy from Titan Books.
(Behind the scenes)
Lesbos is an island situated in the north-east of the Aegean Sea. Lesbos rebelled against the Athenians, leading to its eventual surrender to Athens. Lesbos is notable in real life for
its 18-million-year-old petrified forest, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, home to fossilized remains of a once vast swathe of vegetation and forest. The art team used their artistic license to grow the trees into dense forests of tangled roots and branches, a maze for our hero to navigate. The atmosphere of the forest is oppressive, with temple ruins appearing from the murky background, and a sense of dread lingering behind every corner.
Finished concepts by Hugo Puzzuoli show the red and yellow accents in the rock of the petrified trees, caused by intense volcanic activity millions of years ago.
Inspired by The Art of Assassin's Creed Odyssey, by Kate Lewis, with courtesy from Titan Books.
(Behind the scenes)
The Medusa has been portrayed in many different ways over the years, from a beautiful young woman, to a monstrous creature with a serpent's body and tail. The art team decided to move away from these depictions, concentrating on the details of her appearance. The snakes are based on actual Greek species found on the islands and mainland Greece. Her dress is made from targe swathes of snake skin, suggesting even bigger serpents once existed. "Medusa is represented in her Greek form, as a humanoid woman, rather than in the Roman version that would follow," explains art director Thierry Dansereau. She is, after all, a woman transformed by an ancient artifact, rather than the will of the gods.
Perseus fleeing after cutting off Medusa's head, Athena to the right. Scene from a red-figure hydria / 475-425 BCE (Classical Greece)
Perseus was the Greek hero who ultimately killed Medusa. He was the son of Zeus and Danai, and he promised to obtain the head of Medusa to King Polydektes. Medusa was a gorgon, a female monster that had living snakes on her head instead of locks of hair. Her gaze petrified all who locked eyes with her, and turned them to stone.
Perseus went to the Hesperides to acquire the weapon that would help him defeat Medusa. They also gave him a sack to hold her head (kibisis). He received a sword [harpe) from Zeus, winged sandals from Hermes, a shiny shield from Athena, and the ability to hide from Hades.
When Perseus entered Medusa's cave, he used the shield's reflection to avoid eye contact, and successfully decapitated her.
Perseus used the head of Medusa as a weapon, but later gave it as a gift to Athena, who placed the head of the gorgon (gorgoneion) on her shield, or the Aegis.
Inspired by The Art of Assassin's Creed Odyssey, by Kate Lewis, with courtesy from Titan Books.
(Behind the Scenes)
Where better to have the home of the notorious Medusa, famous for turning her victims to stone, than in a petrified forest. As one of the most well-known creatures from Greek myth, featuring in countless books, movies, and historical records, it was a challenge for the development team to strip away the previous incarnations and start fresh. In mythology, Medusa was one of the three Gorgons, sisters with wings and snakes for hair, able to petrify onlookers. The Medusa in Assassin's Creed Odyssey is a woman, transformed by a First Civilization artifact into a creature of great power. As such, her temple features the classic geometry and architecture of First Civilization constructions, and is the only open-air First Civilization temple in game.
