User:Lady Kyashira/Shadows Documentation

Attika

100 Elected MagistratesAltar of AthenaAltar of DionysosAltar of the Twevlve GodsApolloArtemis Brauronia

Bust of Perikles, Roman copy of an earlier Greek original / 2nd cent. CE (Roman period)

While Athens did not have a bureaucracy in place to permanently run the city and the rest of its empire, it did elect more than 1,000 officials every year to manage its affairs. Most of these officials had very minor responsibilities, and therefore only worked part-time.

The vast majority of officiais were chosen by lot, but the most important ones were elected by popular vote in the Athenian assembly. In both cases, citizens who wished to hold one of the positions had to first nominate themselves.

Citizens had to be thirty years old to qualify for an official position, and even then, they could still be dismissed. Despite these limitations, however, up to 5% of all Athenian citizens were appointed or elected to official positions on a yearly basis, or became part of the Council of 500.

Depending on the year, up to 100 officials were elected. The most important of these were the ten generais, or strategoi. The generals were officially in charge of military matters, but over the course of the 5th century BCE, their influence expanded to political matters as well. For example, Perikles was elected general 15 times between 443 and 429 BCE, and used that time to cement his hold on Athenian politics.

Athena Polias, fully armed, in front of a small burning altar on a neck-amphora of Panathenaic shape, attributed to the Princeton painter / 6th cent. BCE (Archaic Greece)

The most important element of ancient Greek cults was the sacrifice to gods. Consequently, the most important structures were the altars where the sacrifices were slaughtered and burnt. Therefore, the Great Altar of Athena Polias, the patron deity of Athens, was the holiest and most significant monument on the Akropolis.

The exact location of the altar is unknown, but it seems that it was erected to the east of the Erechtheion, in the northern, most sacred part of the Akropolis. While other buildings were frequently dismantled and erected anew, the altar's position did not change for hundreds of years.

In Perikles's time, the altar built ca. 525 BCE by the sons of the great tyrant Peisistratos was probably remodeled as an impressive stepped structure, so that it could easily host sacrifices as large as the Panathenaia festival's hecatomb, which involved the slaughtering of 100 cattle, as implied by its name (hekaton = “one hundred”; bous = “ox").

Red-figure krater with scene of an actor holding a basket beside an altar / 4th cent. BCE (Classical Greece)

An altar consecrated to Dionysos is believed to have stood in the center of the theater's orchestra. This central altar would have been the focal point of the choral dance. However, some archaeologists have suggested the altar was actually on the side of the orchestra, and there has also been debate about whether or not it was a permanent fixture in the theater.

The altar was used in religious ceremonies before and after performances. Dionysos was worshipped with food offerings and the sacrificing of animals like cattle, sheep, pigs, and goats. He was also offered wine libations, befitting his title as the god of wine.

In addition to its sacred uses, the altar could also function as a stage property in various plays, like Agamemnon's tomb in “Choephoroi”, and the omphalos of Delphi in “The Eumenides”.

Altar with the Myth of Adonis / 425-375 BCE (Classical Greece)

This altar dedicated to the twelve gods seems to have served as both a place of refuge and a topographical point of reference. Herodotos used the altar to give sample distances, and it functioned as a milestone for all distances in Attika.

The altar was dedicated by the archon Peisistratos in 522 BCE. The exact identity of the twelve gods is still debated, but itis commonly accepted that they were the same twelve Olympian gods that were represented on the east frieze of the Parthenon.

Apollo with kithara and palm tree, scene from a lekythos / 460-450 BCE (Classical Greece)

Apollo was a complex deity with several different attributions. He was the god of art, music and poetry, Light and knowledge, prophecies, and medical healing.

He was the son of Zeus and Leto, and the brother of Artemis. Since Hera was very jealous of Zeus's extramarital lovers, Leto was forced to seek refuge in Delos to bear her child. Apolto was depicted as a young, beardless, and beautiful man. His main symbols were the lyre, the bow, the tripod, and the laurel branch.

Apollo had several sanctuaries in Greece, but the most famous was the sanctuary in Delphi, where his Oracle resided.

The Diana of Versailles or Artemis with a Doe, based on a 4th cent. BCE Greek bronze scuplture attributed to Leochares / 2nd cent. CE

The sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia, or the Brauroneion, was located near the Propylaia.

In a city dominated with dedications to Athena, the Brauroneion stood out for its focus on Artemis Brauronia, the goddess who presided over girls from puberty to childbirth.

It was likely installed by the ruler Peisistratos, a native of Brauron.

It's probably the sanctuary was built for a smaller branch of the main cult of Artemis Brauronia.

It consisted of a portico, and a wooden statue that was later replaced with a marble one carved by the famous sculptor Praxiteles.

Athena ErganeAthenian BannerAtheniansBig BattlesBouleChalkotheke

The Parthenon frieze showing worshippers holding the peplos devoted to Athena, who is seated along Hephaistos / 5th cent. BCE (Classical Greece)

In many ancient texts, the goddess Athena bears the attribute "Ergane", which refers to her patronage of craftsmen and artisans, and other crafts.

Athena Ergane was mainly associated with spinning and weaving. She protected women who produced textiles, and in return they offered her spindles, loom weights, raw wool, and textiles as dedications.

On ancient painted vases, Athena Ergane was often represented as either an artisan in a tool-filled workshop, or as an owl next to objects symbolizing certain crafts. For example, an owl next to a wool basket was sometimes stamped on loom weights used by weavers.

It is not clear if Athena Ergane had an actual cult, like Athena Polias, but it is evident that the goddess bearing this epithet received dedications and offerings from all sorts of artisans. Moreover, the sacred peplos given to the goddess during the Panathenaia was woven under the auspices of Athena Ergane.

Owl standing right from a tetradrachm of Athens / 454-404 BCE (Classical Greece)

The Athenian banner is inspired by the coinage of Athens in the 5th century BCE. These coins show the main goddess of the city, Athena, on one side, and an owl on the reverse. Athena had several known attributes, but was mainly associated with warfare, handicraft, and wisdom. She was the patron of Athens - to which she gave her name.

The owl of Athena symbolized the goddess's wisdom and protection, and was often depicted beside her in iconography. These Athenian coins were so emblematic that they were called the glaukes (owls) in antiquity.

Inspired by The Art of Assassin's Creed Odyssey, by Kate Lewis, with courtesy from Titan Books.

(Behind the scenes)

Concept artwork on this spread by Gabriel Blain and Fred Rambaud showcases the variety of opponents to be found in Athens, Attika, and all over Greece. The Athenian army is similar to the Spartans', but does have key differences. The Athenian breastplates are smooth, favoring motifs and symbols over representation of muscles. And there is of course the color: Athenians are represented in blue so they are recognizable to the player.

Inspired by The Art of Assassin's Creed Odyssey, by Kate Lewis, with courtesy from Titan Books.

(Behind the scenes)

"Realizing an enormous battle on the scale of ancient Greek warfrare was quite a technical and design challenge. We wanted to remain as true as possible to the tactics and warfare of the time, but plenty of compromises were made for gameplay, excitement, and technical constraints." - Scott Phillips

"Even making the Discovery Tour was a challenge as we needed to show battlefields without explicitly showing a battlefield. We opted for flags instead of violence to communicate the events." - Paul Green, Assistant Level Design Director on Discovery Tour: Ancient Greece

Bronze statue of an orator / 2nd-1st cent. BCE

Bills passed by the prytaneis had to be submitted to the citizen assembly, the ekklesia.

The boule and the ekklesia worked together in coordinating and calling the assembly. When laws were voted on, they sent the relevant decrees to the city's magistrates and inhabitants. They were the link between decisions made in the assembly and their implementation.

The boule also supervised other matters like city finances, magistrate coordination, sacred affairs, etc.

Shield hung on the wall of a small shrine, on a red-figure krater attributed to the Pothos painter / 4th cent. BCE

The Chalkotheke, meaning “bronze storehouse”, was built in the available space between the Parthenon, the temple of Artemis Brauronia, and the Akropolis's southern wall.

The building was used as a storehouse for the bronze and iro items of Athens's treasury, either around 450 BCE, during the reform of the first Delian League, or in the 370s BCE, when Athenian imperial ambitions were once again on the rise after recovering from their defeat in the Peloponnesian War.

Most information on the Chalkotheke was preserved on four 4th century BCE inscriptions, which were displayed nearby and contained detailed inventories of the building's items, including metal vases, statues, and above all, weapons and armor. The Chalkotheke therefore also functioned as a military arsenal, as further evidenced by the stockpile of artillery and naval equipment the Athenians stored in the building in 320 BCE.

CoinsContest Between Poseidon and AthenaDeus Ex MachinaEponymous HeroesFamily AltarFortification

Tetradrachm of Athens / 454-404 BCE (Classical Greece)

Athenian coinage was the most abundant Greek coinage in the 5th century BCE. The coins came in many denominations, from tiny coins weighing approximately 0.15g to larger tetradrachms weighing 17.20g. At one point, Athens even struck an issue of dekadrachms weighing 43.209. These large coins dated back to the 460s BCE, and have been linked to either the Athenian victory over the Persians at the Eurymedon River - which resulted in an enormous amount of seized booty - or the capture of Thasos and its rich mines.

Athens also occasionally struck gold coins, and from the end of the 5th century BCE, they minted bronze coinage as well.

Cameo of Poseidon and Athena competing to become the patron deity of Athens, attended by Kecrops, represented as a snake / 1st. cent BCE

The myth of Poseidon and Athena's competition for Athens's patronage was one of the most well-known in Periklean Athens, and was even depicted on the West Pediment of the Parthenon. It was recounted later by many Greek and Roman writers, and in many different forms.

The basic version of the story states that the half-man half- serpent Kekrops, the first king of a newly founded city in Attika, needed the location to have a patron deity. Poseidon was the first to apply, and struck the rock of the Akropolis with his trident, turning it into a salty spring that he offered to Kekrops's subjects as a gift [in later versions, the spring is replaced by a horse, Poseidon's favorite creature). Athena struck the rock as well, and an olive tree sprouted from the ground. Depending on the version of the myth, either Kekrops or a divine jury ruled that Athena's gift was more precious, and so she became the patron goddess of the city that was thenceforth known as Athens.

The salty spring and the olive tree, which were both visible on the Akropolis, were seen as symbols of seafaring and agriculture, respectively. The earliest versions of the myth, devised by landed elites, favored Athena and depicted Poseidon as a vengeful ruffian who flooded part of Attika after he had lost. However, after the naval battle of Salamis in 480 BCE and the creation of Athens's maritime empire, the sea- minded Athenian democracy elaborated a new version of the myth where the two gods are reconciled. Reconciliation was reflected in the building of the Erechtheion, which was dedicated both to Athena Polias [of the city) and to Poseidon (Erechtheos).

Bellerophon riding Pegasos, about to hurl spear at Chimera, obverse of a stater of Tarsos / 440-420 BCE (Classical Greece)

The geranos (cranel, or mechane [machine], was located on the right end of the stage, and could suspend and carry actors through the air. This was especially useful for portraying characters like gods or heroes.

On top of the skene, there was also a roof called the theologeion ("where the gods speak”) that was reserved for the appearance of divine beings.

Greek dramatists would often employ gods to resolve difficult and complicated conflicts. The god would first be lifted through the air by the geranos, then land on the theologeion before resolving the drama with a neat solution.

This process inspired the expression “deus ex machina” - or “theos apo mechanes” in Greek. The expressing refers to the sudden resolution of a seemingly unresolvable situation.

View of the Eponymous Heroes monument in the Agora / 2014

The Monument of the Eponymous Heroes was built in honor of the heroes from whom the ten founding tribes of Athens took their names. The bronze statues were erected on a marble base that also served as an official notice board for the Athenian people.

Athens was divided into ten tribes when Kleisthenes reorganized the political system in 508 BCE. The tribes' ten heroes were chosen from amongst the mythical figures of Athens by the Oracle at Delphi. The chosen figures were Erechtheus, Aigeus, Pandion, Leos, Akamas, Oeneus, Kekrops II, Hippothoon, Ajax, and Antiochos.

Athens's tribal structure meant that citizens voted by tribes, and the council of the Boule featured a rotation of tribal delegations.

Young man pouring a libation over an altar, scene from a red-figure cup / 480 BCE (Classical Greece)

Religion was an important aspect of Greek private life. Though the walls of the house provided physical protection, the family needed divine protection as well, and for this they turned to Zeus. Every house had an altar dedicated to Zeus Herkeios [of the Fencel] that the family could worship at by offering sacrifices and libations in the god's honor.

Sacrifices were also performed in the house on special occasions like weddings, births, or for the festival of Zeus Ktesios. The Greek dramatist Menander mentions that worshippers would circle the altar with sacrificial tools like a vessel of holy water. They sprinkled the water around the altar to purify it, then began the sacrifice proper. Household sacrifices could be animals, but also offerings of incense and vegetables.

The ceremony of Amphidromia celebrated the presentation of a newborn, and might have taken place in the courtyard. The ceremony was held when the baby was five days old, and symbolized its acceptance into the family. Friends were invited to the occasion, and the house's exterior was decorated differently depending on the sex of the child: olive branches indicated a boy, while garlands of wool signaled a girl.

The most central part of the Amphidromia was the circling the house's hearth with the newborn, followed by the presenting of the child to both the house's gods and the rest of the family. The newborn also received their name during the ceremony.

Map of Athens and its fortifications. Prepared by Jean Denis Barbié du Bocage (1760-1825) in 1784 for the "Travels of Anacharsis"

Following the Greco-Persian Wars, Themistokles recommended that Athens fortify both the city and the port of Piraeus.

The fortifications started under Themistokles and were further strengthened by Perikles and Kimon. Their efforts contributed to the creation of the so-called "Long Walls" that ensured Athens always had access to its port, even in times of war.

Fountain HouseFuneral RitesGarden of HephaistosGods of the HouseholdHippiasHoplitesKlepsydra

Black-figure hydria with scene of women at a fountain house / 510-500 BCE (Archaic Greece)

Water was supplied to the agora through fountain houses. Aqueducts delivered the water to a reservoir, and the overflow was evacuated through a drain. Fountain houses are amongst the earliest public buildings in the agora.

Grave stele of Philoxenos with his wife Philoumene in the symbolic gesture of the handshake (dexiosis) / 400 BCE (Classical Greece)

Honoring the dead was a duty expected by the gods. Desecrating their bodies, allowing the bodies to be desecrated, or forgetting them in the open air was a heinous crime. It was expected to give the dead a proper funeral - especially for fallen soldiers.

Bodies were commontly buried or consumed in the flames of a funeral pyre. The pyre was especially common for dead soldiers, as the heat and light of the fire were considered appropriate send-offs.

Greek monuments were always painted, including the steles erected to commemorate the dead. Some extensive traces of red and black pigments can be seen even today.

The steles usually showed the deceased person in different positions - one of the most common images being a hand- shake with a family member.

Return of Hephaistos to Olympos, detail on a red-figured krater / 440 BCE (Classical Greece)

In the precinct of the Hephaisteion, excavators have discovered archaeological traces of the "Garden of Hephaistos”. According to their findings, trees and shrubs used to be planted in rows running parallel to the main structure.

Priam, king of Troy, takes refuge at the altar of Zeus Herkeios. He's attacked by Neoptolemos before his wife, Hecuba. Scene from a red-figure amphora / 500 BCE (Archaic Greece)

The Greek household was protected by many gods.

Zeus Herkeios - or “Zeus of the Fence” -- was worshipped at a courtyard altar, and supposedly protected the house from outside aggressors.

Zeus Ktesios - "Zeus of the Property” - was linked to a house's family and their wealth. He was represented by a two- handled jar wrapped in a white woolen fillet and filled with various seeds, water, and olive oil.

Other gods include Hestia, who was the eponymous goddess of the domestic hearth, as well as Hermes and Apollo, who are both mentioned as being guardians of the front door. Representations of Herakles were also known to stand near houses, possibly to protect them from crime and the forces of evil.

Achilles and Ajax playing a board game, on an Attic black-figured amphora / 530-510 BCE (Archaic Greece)

Hippias was the son of Peisistratos, the tyrant of Athens. he succeeded his father in 528 BCE, ruled with absolute power, and brutally dispose of his enemies.

In spit of this, Athens was surprisingly peaceful and prosperous under Hippias' rule. His reigned ended in 510 BCE, when a Spartan invasion of Attika led to his downfull.

Hippias fled to Asia Minor, where he came in contact with the Persian king Darius. The disgraced tyrant would eventually convinced the Persians to land their forces at Marathon.

Hoplite kneeling left, holding spear and shield. From the reverse of a bronze coin from Chersonnesos / 350-300 BCE (Classical Greece)

In Greece, hoplites were heavy inffantrymen. They carried round shields large enough to protect both themselves and anyone to their left, and wore helmets, cuirasses, and leggings.

Hoplites normally advanced in a phalanx formation of five to seven lines deep. The phalanx allowed them to attack with spears, and simultaneously defend themselves from any cavalry and archers attacking from the front.

Roman bronze clepsydra / 1st-5th cent. CE (Roman period)

In the 5th century BCE, all citizens could theoretically attend the Athenian assembly, which governed not only civic affairs but also the affairs of an entire empire. Needless to say, managing the assembly was complex, and one of the main challenges was ensuring the meetings were conducted in a timely fashion.

It was especially important that every citizen was given the same amount of time to speak. For this reason, a water clock known as a klepsydra was set up at the Pnyx to ensure every orator spoke for the same allotted time.

A klepsydra was made up of two large vases, one above the other, and a small tube. The tube poured water into the bottom vase over the course of six minutes, then the vases were switched and the process repeated itself.

In addition to keeping time at assembly meetings, klepsydrae were also important in courts of law, where they ensured both the prosecution and the defense had equal time to speak.

Kore PhrasikleiaKyreniaLighthousesMaster BedroomMerchant ShipsMotifs and ScenesMusic

Marble statue of Kore / 500 BCE (Classical Greece)

Kore Phrasikleia is one of the most important works of archaic scuplture. It depicts a young woman (kore), and was found in Attika during excavations next to a young male statue.

The statue is dated to 550-530 BCE and depicts a kore wearing sandals, a full length sleeved chiton, and a tall kalathos decorated with flowers. In her hand, she holds a lotus bud. She is also wearing earrings, a necklace, and two bracelets. The height of the statue is 1.79 metersm and the preservation of its polychromy is astonishing. Recent research confirms the use of eleven different colorants, as well as gold and lead foil.

We know the name of the deeased Phrasikleia bcause it is inscribed on the base of the statue. Her young age is also implied, as she is called the maiden in the inscription, meaning she died before she got married. On the left side of the base is the name of the sculptor, Aristion of Paros. The base was not buried with the kore, but was used as a building material in a nearby church, where it was recovered.

Aristion fabricated and signed other statues as well, which allow us to date the creation of the statue of Phrasikleia to between 550 and 530 BCE. It's not impossible hat the artist was associated with the sphere of power of the tyrants of Athens, and that the statue might have belonged to the Peisistratid family.

Modern reconstitition of a Greek trireme, called the Olympias / 2018

Maritime trade was a risky business, and not every ship reached its destination.

For example, a merchant ship was wrecked near Kyrenia in the 4th century BCE, and underwater excavations of its remains have revealed much information about ancient Greek shipbuilding.

The wreck's wooden hull was made of pine, and suggests the ship was made using the “shell-first” technique, wherein the shell of the boat was constructed before the rest of its parts. The ship's cargo included jars filled with almonds, and over 400 wine amphoras. It also carried 29 milltstones that were used as ballast to stabilize the vessel, and 300 lead net weights that were likely used for fishing.

Pharos (lighthouse) of Alexandria from a Roman provincial tetradrachm of Commodus / 188-189 CE (Roman period)

Originally, ports used fire to help guide ship navigators to land. The innovation of placing fire on top of a platform led to the development of the lighthouse.

Ancient lighthouses started appearing in the archaic period, around the 6th-5th centuries BCE. The island of Thasos had three marble lighthouses that took the shape of small circular towers placed on promontories.

One of the most famous lighthouses was the Pharos of Alexandria, which stood at a height of over 100 meters.

Terracotta plate depicting a man in his bed, his lyre hanging above him / 595 - 570 BCE (Archaic Greece)

Bedrooms in antiquity were generally small and sparsely furnished. Greek bedrooms usually contained a Kline (couch), tables, klismoi (chairs), stools, incense burners, and chests to store clothes and other objects. In general, the amount of furniture corresponded to the wealth of the family, with richer people able to afford more furniture.

According to ancient architects, the ideal place for bedrooms was on the western side of the courtyard to catch the morning sun. This explains why most bedroom windows had shutters to keep the light out.

Black-figure cup by the painter Nikosthenes depicting ships / 520 - 510 BCE (Archaic Greece)

Maritime trade was essential for Greek cities, and certain products could only be acquired from overseas.

Large-scale trade occurred in the emporion. Greeks conducted business amongst themselves, but also with other places like Egypt.

Traded goods included grapes, olives, wine amphoras, grain, wood, metal ore, textiles, and slaves.

Perseus chasing Gorgons, from an Attic black-figure kyathos (ladle), attributed to near the Theseus Painter (c.510-490 BCE) / 510-500 BCE (Archaic Greece)

Whether it was monsters battling gods, famous (or infamous) lovers, or heartbreaking tragedies, artists used their clay as a canvas to depict whatever they desired.

Vases made in the Kerameikos told many stories, ranging from scenes from everyday life, such as two young Athenians flirting with each other, to phenomenal cosmic battles, like Perseus slaying Medusa. By the 5th century BCE, painters and potters drew on a wide variety of inspirations for their work.

Inspired by The Art of Assassin's Creed Odyssey, by Kate Lewis, with courtesy from Titan Books.

(Behind the scenes)

“Music was everywhere in Ancient Greece and we wanted to reflect this in the game. Musicians played in the sanctuaries, the Olympics, the villages and the cities.

Music had many uses, including singing and playing during ceremonies, creating rhythm during combat training and for entertainment.

Working closely with our musicians in the UK, Canada and Greece, we created original songs that reflected important moments in the story, instrumental music to provide entertainment throughout the world, and ancient Greek sailors songs for the boat” - Lydia Andrew

Myesteries of EleusisOlive Tree of AthenaOstracismOther MineralsPerfume for the DeadPerikles' HomePlague

Relief of Demeter and Persephone giving grains to Triptolemos to teach agriculture to mankind. 19th cent. CE plaster cast of the original marble from the National Museum of Athens / 440 BCE (Classic Greece)

Eleusis is a city in West Attika, at the northern end of the Saronic Gulf and at a distance of 20 kilometers from the center of Athens.

The city of Eleusis was practically unknown until the 1930's, when excavations determined the shape of the Classical city. High on the summit, the akropolis of Eleusis was fortified since the Mycenaean period, and the Sanctuary of Demeter was situated lower down the hill and outside the fortification. According to the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, Demeter herself introduced the mysteries at Eleusis during the quest for her daughter, Persephone. At some point, Demeter stopped at the palace of King Keleos, and as a gift for his hospitality, she taught Triptolemos the art of agriculture. From him, the rest of Greece was educated in agriculture, anditis inin Demeter's honor that the people of Eleusis built a sanctuary. Demeter also taught the people the rites to the "Mysteries”, a secret cult restricted to initiates.

The hymn to Demeter provides the association between myth and ritual, and builds the necessary connection for the establishment of the Eleusis cult.

Demeter and Persephone were worshiped together at Eleusis and were referred to as “goddesses”. They were distinguished from each other as “the older” (Demeter) or “the younger” (Persephone).

Bronze coin of Athens depicting Athena standing beside an olive tree on the reverse / 264-267 CE (Roman period)

Today, an olive tree grows on the western side of the Erechtheion. Although it was planted in 1952 by members of the American School of Archaeology, it is conveniently believed to be descended from a sacred olive tree planted during the foundation of Athens.

Myth says that when Athena and Poseidon competed to become the patron deity of the new city, they were required to bring gifts to its citizens. Athena struck the Akropolis with her spear, and the sacred olive tree sprouted from the ground. For these reasons, ancient Greeks thought that Athenian olive trees were the holiest in all of Hellas.

Herodotos and Pausanias both report that the Persians burned the tree in 480 BCE, only for it to grow again from its ashes on the very same day. This miraculous revival is the archetype for all the other subsequent resurrections of the tree.

Ostraka with the names of Perikles, Kimon, and Miltiades amongst other names / 5th cent. BCE (Classical Greece)

One of the Athenian democracy's unique features was the practice of ostracism. Originally implemented to prevent the rise of another tyrant, ostracism involved the temporary exiling of an Athenian by his fellow citizens.

Every year, citizens would vote in the assembly over whether or not an ostracism would take place. If they voted yes, another vote would later be held in the agora to determine which citizen would be ostracized. Each citizen wrote the name of a potential candidate on a fragment of pottery called an ostraka. If more than 6,000 votes were cast, the person who was named most frequently had 10 days to leave the city, after which he would remain in exile for 10 years.

From 487 BCE to 415 BCE, a number of prominent Athenians were ostracized for a variety of reasons. Relatives of Hippias, the last tyrant of Athens, were exiled after they were suspected of wanting to overthrow the city's democracy. The general Kimon, meanwhile, was ostracized for pursuing an unsuccessful policy of friendship with Sparta. But perhaps the most famous ostracism was that of Themistokles, a general renowned for his exemplary service in the Greco-Persian Wars.

Lead ingot from Laurion mine / 8th-6th cent. BCE (Archaic Greece)

Copper and tin were very important to the ancient Greeks, as they were used to make the bronze from which objects like statues, tripods, and weapons were formed.

Lead was an important mineral as well, and was used in the construction of water pipes and other features of architecture, such as tenons and column drums. It was also used as a stain in ornamental painting.

Iron, meanwhile, was the most widely available metal in ancient Greece, and served to make arms and tools.

Mercury - or liquid silver - was used as an ointment ingredient, as well as a pigment of the color red.

Terracotta funerary plaque with prothesis scene, and below a chariot scene, probably evoking funeral games / 520-510 BCE (Archaic Greece)

Even in their earliest days, Greeks used perfume in funeral rites, as seen in Achilles's anointing of Hector's body in “The Iliad”.

Perfume helped prepare and preserve the body for its “journey to the beyond”. Flasks of perfume also accompanied the deceased to their grave as a mark of social status and a balm for “the eternal banquets”. If the deceased was too poor to afford these bottles, they were painted on their coffins as a sort of empty consolation.

Even when a body was burned on a pyre, mourners threw incense in the fire, and afterwards mixed the ashes and bones with precious ointments before enclosing them in funeral urns.

Perikles at the deathbed of his son, oil painting by Félix Henry Giacomotti (1828-1909) / 1851

Perikles was one of the most influential men in Athenian politics during the second half of the 5th century BCE. Historians even refer to the period he was in power as “The Age of Perikles”.

Athens flourished under Perikles's leadership. With his guiding hand, the Delian League transformed into the Athenian empire, and all the League's members were made to regularly pay tribute to the city. Because of this new income, Athens was able to erect extravagant monuments on the Akropolis, such as the famous Parthenon.

During the Peloponnesian War, Perikles's strategy was to conduct a naval war, preferring to keep himself within the walls of Athens. However, as a consequence of the city's overpopulation, a plague spread through the population and killed many people, including Perikles himself.

Plague at Ashdod, oil painting by Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665) / 17th cent. CE (Modern period)

During the Peloponnesian War, Perikles's strategy was to avoid land combat with the Spartans in favor of taking advantage of Athens's naval supremacy. He also recommended that the population of Attika leave their houses and take refuge within Athens's walls.

The latter action ended up vastly increasing the city's population. Many of the refugees ended up camping in Piraeus, which became crowded as a result.

Within the same year, a plague began spreading through Piraeus. Due to the dense population, the epidemic quickly spread to Athens, killing approximately twenty-five percent of the population - including Perikles himself.

PhilippidesPoseidonPriesthoodPriest HouseProduction and PricePropylaiaSanctuary of Pandion

The soldier of Marathon announcing the result of the battle. Painting by Luc Olivier Merson (1846–1920)/ 19th cent. (Modern period)

Philippides was a "hemerodrome", a professional runner who served Athens as a herald.

According to Herotodotos, Athens sent Philippides to ask Sparta for aid at Marathon. During his journey, he encountered the god Pan in the mountains. Pan — who was half-man, half-goat — complained that the Athenians did not honor him as much as they should have — especially since he could render helpful services like sowing panic and terror in the ranks of their enemies. Following the Battle of Marathon, the Athenians corrected their neglectful attitude towards Pan, and thanked him for his help in their victory.

Tetradrachm of the Makedonian king Demetrios Poliorketes with a Nike on the prow of a trireme on obverse, and Poseidon brandishing his trident on the reverse / 301-395 BCE (Hellenistic Greece)

Poseidon was the god of horses, earthquakes, and most famously, the sea. Not to be confused with Pontos, the ancient Greek personification of the sea, Poseidon's name means “Lord of the earth” or “husband of the earth”.

Poseidon's family tree includes his father Kronos, his mother Rhea, and his brothers, Zeus and Hades. Together, Poseidon and his brothers deposed Kronos, after which Poseidon was granted the kingdom of the sea.

His weapon and symbol was the trident. According to Hesiod, much like Zeus's thunderbolts, Poseidon's trident was made for him by three Cyclopes.

A goddess stands by an altar to pour an offering from a phiale on a terracotta kylix / 5th cent. BCE (Classical Greece)

There was no professional qualification needed to become a priest or a priestess. A wealthy family, luck, and, less often, the will of the Public Assembly were the only criteria that mattered. Many priesthoods stayed within the same families or clans for generations, as the appointment of priests outside the members of the clan was strictly prohibited. For example, in Athens, both the priestess of Athena Polias and Poseidon- Erechtheus had to come from the Eteoboutadai.

Priests and priestesses were in charge of the sacrifices to the gods, and of any other cultic duties preserved by tradition. They also assisted political leaders and other citizens who wished to correctly perform public and private religious activities. Lastly, they presided over the affairs and resources of their assigned sanctuary.

They were held in high esteem by their fellow citizens, and their political opinions carried a lot of weight in public debates. In certain cities, the annual priesthood of the main cult was even used as a way of measuring time. Priests and priestesses also received significant shares of the sacrifices they performed.

Although priests generally enjoyed the same freedoms and rights as citizens - like that of living at their own homes - they also had to follow restrictive rules. Besides more general requirements such as fasting and undergoing a period of chastity before certain rituals, there were also strange restrictions. For example, in Attika, the priestess of Athena Polias was not allowed to eat cheese.

Priests in a sacrifice scene on a red-figure bell krater attributed to the Pothos painter / 5th cent. BCE (Classical Greece)

In ancient Greece, priests and priestesses were either designated or elected from among citizens and clerical families.

They performed sacred rituals on special occasions like festivals, or when otherwise required.

Priest houses are often linked with the priesthood, but priests did not actually live in them, preferring to stay at their own homes in the city's residential quarter.

Instead, the main purpose of priest houses was to provide priests with a space to carry out their rituals during specific days on the religious calendar.

Priest houses were considered too sacred for the mundane activities of daily life, and priests had to perform purification rituals - such as a period of chastity - before they were allowed to enter.

Attic red-figure cup, attributed to Onesimos and Euphronois / c. 490 BCE (Archaic Greece)

Although some Athenian vases are lauded today as masterpieces, their exact value in ancient Greece is often a matter of debate. Workers in the Kerameikos were craftsmen, and operated largely outside the elite social spheres they often depicted on their pottery. This fact, combined with surprisingly low price indications on even the largest and most elaborate Athenian vases, suggest that vases were not exorbitantly expensive. However, certain dedications made by craftsmen like Euphronios hint that some workshops were very successful.

Propylaia / 2016

The Propylaia was the monumental gateway on the western side of the Akropolis. It was built between 437 and 432 BCE, under the supervision of either Phidias or Mnesikles, and was part of Perikles' plan to adorn the Akropolis with magnificent monuments. Although it was not seen as a military structure, the Propylaia was also used to restrict access to Athens' holiest area.

It was conceived as a spectacular construction of Pentelic white marble and Elusinian grey marble, and its design was meant to stylistically mirror the Parthenon.

The Propylaia's construction was suspended in 431 BCE due to the start of the Peloponnesian War, and was never resumed. This means that out of a very ambitious project, only the main building was finished. Nevertheless, with its five gates a ceiling painted with golden stars, it remained impressive. The gateway was also unique in that it mixed both Doric and Ionic columns, in addition to be reinforced with iron.

The northern wing of the western façade housed a 10.75m x 9 m ritual dining room known as the Pinakotheke. According to Pausanias, the Pinakotheke was famous in antiquity for its paintings of Greek battles.

Pandion I (left), receiving the requst of his ally, Tereus, king of Thrace (right), of marrying Prokne, Pandion's daughter, on a bell-krater attributed to the Achilles painter / 5th cent. BCE (Classical Greece)

The easternmost building on the Akropolis was the open-air walled sanctuary of Pandion, built ca. 450 BCE.

Pandion was a mythical Athenian hero invented in order to explain the beginnings of old rituals dedicated to certain gods - in this case, Zeus. He was probably credited with being the first to perform the rites of Pandia, a festival believed to have been dedicated to Zeus. The sanctuary housed his statue and served as a heroon, or a hero's shrine.

Modern scholars believe this sanctuary's Pandion to be one of the two Legendary Athenian kings: either Pandion |, son of Erichthonius, or Pandion Il, father of Aigeus.

When Kleisthenes established Athens's democracy in 507 BCE and divided the population in 10 newly created tribes, Pandion was selected to give his name to the Pandionis tribe, thus becoming one of the eponymous protectors of the Athenian population. Another statue of him was raised in the Agora - Athens's marketplace and public square - as part of the sculptural ensemble of the 10 eponymous heroes.

Sanctuary of Zeus PolieosShipshedsSiege TacticsSkene StructureSounionSounion FestivalsSouth Stoa

Ancient ox sacrifice in front of an altar, drawing by Jacques Louis David, in 1775-1780 / 18th cent. CE (Modern period)

Besides Athena Polias and Poseidon-Erechtheus, Athenians believed their city was also protected by Zeus Polieos (of the city). This was based on Zeus being the judge of Athena and Poseidon's mythical competition to become Athen's chief deity.

Consequently, a small walled open-air sanctuary was erected to Zeus Polieos ca. 500 BCE. There are no traces left of it, other than cuttings in the bedrock interpreted by archaelogists to be either remnants of a barn for sacrificial animals, or chutes designed to lead the animals to slaughter.

The main ritual dedicated to Zeus Polieos was the Bouphonia (“the ox murder”), which took place each summer during the greater festival of Dipolieia. Two working oxen, whose sacrifice was normally prohibited, were led to the sanctuary altar, where grain was spread. The first ox to eat the grain was considered to consent to being sacrificed, and was slain by a member of the Thaulonidai family, who subsequently had to throw aside his axe and flee the Akropolis. That man and his companions were later tried for “murder”, but always acquitted. In the end the sacrificial axe (or knife) was found auiltv and thrown into the sea.

The ritual, believed to be very archaic, was based on the myth of a priest who accidentally killed a ploughing ox and had to expliate the sin through annual sacrifices to Zeus. It reminded the ancient Athenians that laboring beasts should not be sacrificed, and that they should respect the sacred laws of raising special sacrificial animals. Modern scholars also think the ritual was a means to explain how humanity passed from grain and honey offerings to animal sacrifices.

Wreck of a Greek ship found in Massalia (Marseille) / 6th cent. BCE (Archaic Greece)

Shipsheds were used to store ancient vessels called triremes. The sheds were essential, as triremes required methodical overhauling during the winter months when there was little to no naval navigation.

The earliest shipsheds were built in the time of Themistokles, and Perikles later built more sheds for the sum of 1000 talents. The sheds were originally made of wood before transitioning to stone in the 4th century BCE.

Fire on the decoration of a black-figure lekythos / 500-480 BCE (Classical Greece)

Persian siege tactics were a bit more advanced than those of the Greeks, for they knew how to build ramps to get their troops past the city walls, and they also knew how to undermine them - this explains their successes in taking the lonian cities in Asia Minor that revolted before the outbreak of the Greco-Persian Wars.

It would take another 200 years for the Greeks to Learn how to properly build siege machines that were capable of breaching walls.

Usual siege tactics involved two main approaches. The first was starving a city into submission, but that was time consuming and exposed the besieging army to the same hardship as the besieged, and it was almost impossible if the city in question was supplied by sea - this being the case of Athens during these times. The second method involved having spies or collaborators within the city walls that would open the gates for the besiegers.

Therefore, the most common option for the attacker was to devastate the fields of the defender to provoke the latter to accept an open battle. This explains, in a way, the development of the hoplite phalanx rather than hit and run tactics using skirmishers. The phalanx was formed of a line consisting of the very same citizens that were interested in defending their belongings and their crops, while hit and run tactics risked the destruction of those same crops.

Red-figure krater with scene of theater actors on a stage / 350-330 BCE (Classical Greece)

The skene was a backstage area where costumes and accessories were stored. It was also where actors went for costume and mask changes.

The word “skene” means “tent” or “hut”, suggesting that older versions of the structure were made of perishable material and were only meant to be temporary. Over time, however, the skene underwent many changes.

The first permanent stage-house was built in Athens in 330 BCE. It had projecting structures called paraskenia at each end, and a forestage called a proskenion was added sometime later.

Together with the proskenion came elevated Logeion, and an upper façade known as the episkenion which had large openings called thyromata.

Together, all these structures provided actors with several different ways of entering and exiting the stage.

South-east view of the temple of Poseidon at Sounion, by Edward Dodwell (1767-1832) / 1819

Sounion is located approximately 70 kilometers south of Athens, at the southern tip of the Attika region. Prehistoric tombs in the area suggest that Sounion was first inhabited around 3000 BCE.

The sanctuary of Poseidon stood at Sounion's highest point. It was an imposing structure that overlooked the sea from steep cliffs — Appropriate, for a place dedicated to the power god of the ocean.

Marble statue of a kouros (youth) / 590-580 BCE (Archaic Greece)

Sounion held a festival every four years. While not much is known about the specifics of the festival, it probably occurred during the 5th century BCE, and was important enough for officials to commandeer a ship specifically to travel to Sounion for the occasion.

Sounion hosted sacrifices as well, as evidenced by a ramp leading through the central door meant to Lead animals to the sanctuary. Fragments of Kouroi statues have also been found, suggesting dedications were occasionally offered to the sanctuary. However, when the first version of the temple was destroyed by Persians, these dedications were probably wrecked or stolen.

Fortunately, one large Kouros statue, probably from the 7th century BCE, has remained mostly intact. It's possible the statue - which depicts a naked young man with long hair - survived the destruction of the temple by being hidden from the Persians during their invasion.

Terracotta fugurine of a banqueter / 460-450 BCE (Classical Greece)

The South Stoa was, unsurprisingly, Located on the south side of the agora. Built during the first decade of the Peloponnesian War, the building was about 80 meters long, and large enough to contain sixteen rooms.

Based on evidence of dining couches lining the walls, itis thought that some of these rooms were dining halls where magistrates were fed at public expense.

The purpose of another room was inferred by the discovery of an inscription that suggested it was used by the metronomoi, the magistrates in charge of weights and measures.

It's possible the other rooms had similar commercial functions, as excavations in the building have turned up numerous coins.

Stoa of ZeusStreet CleaningStriking CoinsTemple of DionysosThe Battle of SalamisThe Deposition

Head of Zeus Eleutherios from a bronze coin of Syracuse / 344-317 BCE (Classical Greece)

The Stoa of Zeus Eleutherios stood out because of its architecture. It followed the form of most civic buildings, but with the addition of two projecting wings on either side. On top of each of these wings were akroterion of Nike, the goddess of victory.

The cult of Zeus Eleutherios, the "Zeus of Freedom”, was established after the Battle of Plataia in 479 BCE – the Greek victory that ended the second Persian invasion. The Stoa was built in the latter half of the 5th century BCE.

According to Pausanias, the shields of those who died fighting for the liberty of Athens were prominently displayed on the monument.

Paved way in Thasos agora / 2004

Despite the luxuriousness of public buildings, the streets of Athens were, for the most part, narrow and tortuous. Nevertheless, efforts were made to improve urban planning, such as in the 5th century BCE, when architect Hippodamos of Miletos created a grid plan of the city with parallel streets and rectangular intersections.

Greek cities in the 5th century BCE also became more sanitary thanks to innovations like clean running water and sewers for waste removal.

In Athens, streets and public places were placed in the care of special magistrates known as astynomoi, or “police officers”. The principal duty of these officials was to keep streets and sanctuaries clean, and to organize the efficient disposal of garbage outside the city walls.

Archaeological experiment on ancient Greek mining techniques / 2007

Much of the silver mined in Laurion was later transformed into coins for Athens.

Coin production was a two-step process. The first step was producing small disks of metal called "flans”, and the second was striking the flans into coins.

Every coin produced had a specific weight that corresponded to its value. To achieve this precision, ancient Greeks used small pellets of silver to calculate the exact weight, then put the pellets into a mold. While smelting, the pellets melded together to form flans of a specific weight.

The striking process involved hammering images onto the flans to turn them into coins. It is estimated that up to a few thousand coins could be produced in a single day.

Atlante and other relief from the temple of Dionysos in Athens, photography / 19th cent. CE (Modern period)

During the Classical period, Dionysos was the most important Athenian deity after Athena herself. He was worshipped both inside and outside the city, and the festival dedicated to him - the Great Dionysia - integrated not only citizens, but also metics and foreigners from the colonies.

Dionysos was portrayed as a double-faced god: both human and animal, male and effeminate, young and old. He dealt with murders, madness, and violence, but was also the nicest of the gods when it came to mortals.

“The Bacchae”, a tragedy by Euripides, emphasizes Dionysos's duality. In the play, the god's worshippers are sweet and joyful, but a king named Pentheos is also murdered in his name.

The Battle of Salamis, oil painting by Wilhelm von Kaulbach (1805-1874) / 1858

The Battle of Salamis took place in 480 BCE, and ended in a stunning victory for the Greeks. The battle marked the end of the second Persian invasion of Greece.

After the Greek loss at the Battle of Thermopylai, cntral Greece was open to invasion by King Xerxes and his Persian forces. Xerxes was closer than ever to the vengeance he sought for the humilations his father Darius suffered during the first Persian invasion of Greece.

However, the city of Athens was much stronger than it had been during Darius' time. Rich with resources from the Laurion silver mines, the city used its considerate funds to finance its military effort, with the general Themistokles ordering the construction of 200 triremes.

The Athenians' strength was bolstered by their cooperation with other Greek cities. At Salamis, the Greeks faced their enemy together.

The battle itself occurred as sea, in a small closed bay west of Athens. it was hard-fought on both sides, but in the end, the Persians suffered far more casualities than the Greeks.

Terracotta funerary plaque with scene of prothesis / 520-510 BCE (Archaic Greece)

The last step in the funeral process was placing the deceased into their tomb - an act known as “the deposition”. Although this was a holy ceremony, the presence of a priest was not required.

Women handled almost all preparations. Small offerings were made to the dead - like when Achilles offered his hair to his dead friend Patroklos.

A banquet called a perideipnon was held for mourners, and was typically prepared by the grieving women. This is why women were almost always the first to leave the funeral proceedings while others lingered.

The Erechtheion KaryatidsThe Great PanathenaiaThe Invasion of AttikaThe Long WallsThe Mine Today

Karyatids from the Erechtheion / Contemporary

A karyatid is an ancient architectural pillar or column in the shape of a young maiden.

Many ancient buildings had karyatids, but the most famous of them is the Erechtheion. Its south porch was embellished with six karyatids, which were known in ancient Athens as korai, or “young maidens”.

According to the Roman architect Vitruvius, the maiden- shaped columns were inspired by the women of the Lakonian town of Karyæ, near Sparta. Karyæ's inhabitants betrayed the Greeks by plotting with the Persians, and as a consequence for this crime, the male population of the city was slaughtered, while the women were enslaved; hence their depiction as burden-baring piltars. Other, more positive myths suggest that the karyatids were inspired by the tall and beautiful maidens of Karyæ, who would dance for the goddess Artemis.

The karyatids' usage in the Erechtheion, where they stand above Kekrops's tomb, might be related to the king's funerary cult, as they originally held phialai - vessels for pouring libations to the dead.

Terracotta Panathenaic prize amphora, attributed to the Euphiletos Painter, displaying a foot-race event / 6th cent. BCE (Archaic Greece)

The Panathenaia was the most important religious festival in ancient Athens. It was held each year at the end of July and beginning of August. Every four years, the festival was celebrated on an even greater scale - this was known as the Great Panathenaia.

According to some scholars, the Great Panathenaia was expanded from the Lesser Panathenaia by the tyrant Peisistratos in 566 BCE, to serve as Athens's own version of the Olympic Games.

The celebrations included a day procession of Athenian citizens and resident aliens, athletic games, music and rhapsodic contests, a night procession with a torch relay race, great sacrifices, and communal feasting.

The festival was so important to ancient Athenians that many iconographic, sculptural, and written testimonies of the celebrations were preserved. Furthermore, numerous Panathenaic amphoras (containers) were discovered all over the Greek world. They were great vessels filled with the most expensive Athenian olive oil, and were awarded to the winners of the Panathenaic games. The amphoras were decorated with specific scenes - such as young men running or Athena Promachos wearing military equipment - and they could be sold by the champions for significant amounts of money.

The capture of the Akropolis by the Persians. Engraving from Jacob Abbott, History of Xerxes the Great / 1900

In the aftermath of the Battle of Thermopylai, the Athenian authorities announced it was up to the city's own population to protect their families from the oncoming Persian threat. Athens's people scattered to Salamis, Aegina, and Argolis, and it's said that even the sacred snakes that protected the Akropolis fled the city.

By the time the Persian army arrived in Athens, the only people left on the Akropolis were the sacred treasurers and the people who had stayed behind to barricade the citadel. The Persians killed the remaining Greeks and set fire to all of the Akropolis, including the Olive Tree of Athena. Allegedly, the sacred tree miraculousty grew back the following day - a hopeful image that ties in nicely with the Greeks' victory at the Battle of Salamis in 480 BCE.

Map of Athens and its fortifications. Prepared by Jean-Denis Barbié du Bocage (1760-1825) in 1784 for the "Travels of Anarchasis" / 1784

The Themistoklean Walls were built out of slabs of stone connected by iron bolts and fixed with molded lead. Thucydides noted that it was easy to see that they were built in a hurry in the face of Spartan opposition.

The Long Walls were meant to protect Athens in a different manner than a regular wall of the time. Since they connected the city with its two main harbors, they isolated Athens from the mainland and, as long as she had a navy - the most powerful one in the entire Greek world - it was technically impossible to starve Athens into submission.

The very existence of these walls made possible the whole strategy of Perikles during the Peloponnesian War, which was to endure the Spartan invasions in the territory and to launch counter-attacks by landing troops wherever Sparta and her allies were vulnerable, gradually weakening them.

The walls were about six kilometers long, and they were enforced with towers and ditches.

View of cistern and washery in Thorikos / 2010

The remnants of the Laurion mines remain impressive today. Around 2,000 shafts and 140km of galleries have been discovered, and some ancient cisterns and washeries are still visible.

The PioneersThe TelesterionTheseusToolsTrialsTumulusTypes of VasesVases Throughout History

Lekythos (for perfumed oils) attributed to Phintias and Painter of the Frankfort Acorn / 420-400 BCE (Classical Greece)

Sometime at the end of the óth century BCE, the Kerameikos hosted a group of artists now known as the Pioneers. The Pioneers were colleagues who worked in the at-the-time new red-figure style, exploring its artistic potential in revolutionary ways. Artists like Euthymides, Euphronios, Phintias, and Smikros - identified by signatures on their work almost 2500 years later - brought new innovations to portrayals of everything from aristocratic parties to mythological duels. The members of the Pioneers even playfully painted each other into different scenes.

Among the Pioneers, Euphronios is one of the most famous. He is recognized for his skillful rendering of the human body, as well as the experimental perspectives he employed to bring scenes to life.

View of the sanctuary of Eleusis and the Telesterion / Contemporary

The Telesterion was the most important building of the sanctuary at the far end of the Sacred Way. This was the temple that was dedicated to Demeter, and the place where the cults and mysteries took place. It was here that the climax of the Eleusinian ceremonies happened, and it was in the Telesterion that the priestesses revealed their visions, and the initiates were prohibited from discussing the events that took place.

The Telesterion was a square or rectangular building of approximately fifty meters across with two entrances on each side, with an exception on the western side that was built on the rock. Inside there were eight rows of seats, and forty columns supported the roof. In the center of the roof there was a hole from where the light would enter the temple.

In the center of the Telesterion was a rectangular room called the anaktoron, where all the sacred objects of the cult were kept, and where only the Hierophant could enter.

Today the architectural remains visible on the site are those of the Classical building.

Relief depicting Theseus slaying a Centaur / 4th cent. BCE (Classical Greece)

Theseus is a hero linked with the mythological origins of Athens. He was responsible for the political unification of Attika, and as such, was considered a symbol of Athenian democracy.

The myth of Theseus goes back to the 7th century BCE, but it wasn't until the 5th century BCE that he started to be incorporated into Athens' civic ideology as the founder of the city.

Theseus was the son of Aegeus, king of Athens, and Athira, daughter of Pittheus. Athira was also possessed by Poseidon, which means Theseus had a divine father in addition to a mortal one.

Athira gave birth to Theseus on the island of Sphairos. After growing up, Theseus travelled from Sphairos to Athens, accomplishing several labors along the way.

These labors include killing the bandits Periphetes, Kerkyon, and Prokruste and kill the Krommyonian Sow, a wild pig that was ravaging the region of Krommyon.

However, Theseus is best known for his capture of the bull of Marathon, and his killing of the ferocious Minotaur.

Miner's hammer found in Laurion / 8th-6th cent. BCE (Archaic Greece)

Miners used a variety of tools in their work.

To cut galleries, they mostly used an iron chisel with a hammer, along with levels and wedges. Ore and sterile rocks were later removed from these galleries with either leather sacks or baskets of woven grass.

Oil lamps and torches, meanwhile, provided lighting for the miners. The lights were designed to last for an entire work shift.

Finally, mine maps were drawn on plates and stones to depict topography.

Trial of Sophokles. Oil painting by Michel Ernest-Barthélemy (1833-1902) / 19th cent. CE (Modern period)

Trials were presided over by official magistrates, and the jury was composed of citizens, or heliasts. Any citizen could make an accusation, and if the defendant was convicted, the accuser received a portion of the sentenced fine. This practice led to the eventual appearance of professional accusers known as Sycophants.

The accuser and defendant were given equal time to speak, and their allotted time was measured by a water clock called a “klepsydra”. Their speeches were often prepared by professionals known as logographs.

After the speeches, jurors secretly cast their votes by putting a token in one of two urns. Interestingly, if the accusation was unfounded, the accuser could be convicted instead.

The Tumulus in the plain of Marathon, engraving by Edward Dodwell (1767-1832)

A tumulus was a special tomb in which the ashes of cremated bodies were collected in purple cloth — purple being the mark of royalty. The ashy remains were then placed in a bronze urn.

There is a large tumulus in the Kerameikos that was used from the 560's BCE to the end of the 5th century BCE.

Variety of different shapes of vases, each with a different function / 6th-5th cent. BCE (Archaic Greece)

Ancient Greek pottery came in all shapes, sizes, and colors, and served a multitude of different purposes. Unfortunately, there are few clues as to what different kinds of vases were called. However, modern scholars have assigned certain Greek words to different vases based on their size and possible function.

Pottery vessels were ubiquitous in the ancient world, and were used for everyday activities Like eating and drinking. They were also used in religious functions and athletic competitions, and some even served as baby rattles.

The types of vases associated with symposia - the all-male drinking parties of the Athenian elite - are some of the most well-known examples of Athenian pottery. For example, amphoras held wine, while mixing bowls called kraters were used to dilute the wine with water. Meanwhile, oinochoe functioned as pitchers, and kylixes were used as shallow wine cups.

Attic black-figure dinos found in grave in Capua, Italy, showing a land battle and ships sailing / 520-510 BCE (Archaic Greece)

Most vases made in Athens ended up far away from the Kerameikos, traveiling as far France, the Near East, and Egypt. Boatloads of Athenian pottery were also shipped across the Mediterranean Sea to be sold in Italy, where they made their way into homes, religious sanctuaries, and graves.

One of the richest export markets for pottery was Etruria in central Italy. As a result, Etruria is the source of some of the best-preserved Athenian vases. Some of these vases have even been marked with Etruscan graffiti that allows archaeologists to learn more about their functions.

Weapon MakingWeatherWindowsWorkshops in Piraeus

Artisan working in his workshop, scene from a red-figure cup / 510-500 BCE (Archaic Greece)

In addition to being a trading center, Piraeus also functioned as an industrial center that contained several factories - many of which manufactured weapons during the Peloponnesian War.

The former slave Pasion owned a shield factory, as did the brothers Lysias and Polemarchos. The orator Demosthenes, meanwhile, owned a factory that produced swords. These factories all employed a large number of slaves, and were extremely lucrative for their owners.

Inspired by The Art of Assassin's Creed Odyssey, by Kate Lewis, with courtesy from Titan Books.

(Behind the scenes)

Greece is known for blistering hot sun, crystal clear seas, and sandy beaches, but there is much more to the weather in Odyssey than that. The weather system is huge and systemic, the density of the clouds change to allow for storms and rain to rollin off the sea. As art director Thierry Dansereau jokes, “Since Syndicate, the team knows a lot about the rain!"

The weather also changes between biomes, complementing the different topographies and creating a dynamic, unpredictable environment. In these images, adverse weather highlights very different atmospheres for the player to navigate, giving the game a more immersive and realistic feel.

“To Enter the city of Athens, you had to walk through a cemetery and pass near numerous corpses of criminals sentenced to death...Nothing there to make you smile. Imagine when it was raining...” - Caroline Soucy.

Red-figure lebes gamikos with scene of conversation between a man and two women, with another woman at the window / 360-350 BCE (Classical Greece)

While Greek houses had windows, they usually looked out onto the central courtyard, as opposed to the outside streets. They were placed either on the first floor, or on a high wall so passers-by couldn't peek inside.

The windows were small and without glass. They were often made of wood, but could also be simple holes in the wall. Some windows also had massive stone lintels and embrasures.

The windows were probably closed by means of wooden shutters, large grilles of wood or metal, or stone slabs.

Iron fire-thongs used by blacksmith / 4th-3rd cent. BCE (Hellenistic Greece)

In the 5th century BCE, the great statesman Perikles invited Kephalos of Syracuse - father of the orator Lysias - to Athens, where he wished him to open a weapons workshop. Kephalos accepted, and settled in the Piraeus, the city's harbor. His workshop revolved around the production of shields, and was particularly extensive; it's is said that as many as 120 slaves “worked” there.

In comparison, the father of Demosthenes, another Athenian orator, owned a sword-making workshop that employed thirty or so slaves, but brought in 3,000 drachmae a year - with the wages of a skilled worker being one drachma a day.

Yet another illustrious Athenian, Sophokles, was born to a wealthy manufacturer of armor. Unfortunately, we have little information on these large or small workshops, which where probably numerous in ancient Greece.