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| The '''Ottoman Empire''', also known as the '''Sublime Ottoman State''' (''Ottoman Turkish'': ''Devlet-i ʿAliyye-yi ʿO<u>s</u>mâniyye'' or ''Osmanlı Devleti''), was a Sunni Muslim and Turkic dominion that ruled the Eastern Mediterranean for an excess of six hundred years. | | The '''Ottoman Empire''', also known as the '''Sublime Ottoman State''' (''Ottoman Turkish'': ''Devlet-i ʿAliyye-yi ʿO<u>s</u>mâniyye'' or ''Osmanlı Devleti''), was a Sunni Muslim and Turkic dominion that ruled the Eastern Mediterranean for an excess of six hundred years. |
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| [[File:Osmanli_Devleti_En_Genis_Sinirlari.png|thumb|The wide borders of Ottoman Empire]]
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| <gallery captionalign="left">
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| maviincir 36-osmanli-padisahlari-resimleri.jpg|padişahlar
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| osmanli.jpg|nişan
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| </gallery>
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| ==History== | | ==History== |
| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The '''Ottoman Empire'''<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-9 [dn 4]]</sup> or '''Sublime Ottoman State''' ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_language Ottoman Turkish]: دَوْلَتِ عَلِيّهٔ عُثمَانِیّه''Devlet-i ʿAliyye-yi ʿO<u>s</u>mâniyye'',<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-10 [7]]</sup> (also عثمانلى دولتى''Osmanlı Devleti''),<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-11" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-11 [dn 5]]</sup> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_language Modern Turkish]: ''Yüce Osmanlı Devleti'' or ''Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'') which lasted from 27 July 1299<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-12 [8]]</sup> to 29 October 1923, is one of 16 Turkish empires established throughout history.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-13" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-13 [9]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-El_Kitabi_14-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-El_Kitabi-14 [10]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-15 [11]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The Ottoman Empire was one of the largest and longest lasting empires in history. It was an empire inspired and sustained by Islam, and Islamic institutions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-16" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-16 [12]]</sup>At the height of its power, in the 16th and 17th centuries, it controlled territory in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Europe southeast Europe], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Asia western Asia], and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Africa North Africa].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-17" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-17 [13]]</sup> The Ottoman Empire contained [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provinces_of_the_Ottoman_Empire 29 provinces] and numerous [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassal_and_tributary_states_of_the_Ottoman_Empire vassal states], some of which were later absorbed into the empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-18 [dn 6]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">With [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople Constantinople] (present-day [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_of_Istanbul Istanbul], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_language Ottoman Turkish]: استنبول, Istanbul<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-19" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-19 [14]]</sup> and قسطنطينيه, Kostantiniyye) as its capital city,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-20" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-20 [15]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-21" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-21 [16]]</sup> and vast control of lands around the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean eastern Mediterranean] during the reign of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent Suleiman the Magnificent] (ruled 1520 to 1566), the empire was at the center of interactions between the[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_world Eastern] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world Western] worlds for six centuries.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The Ottoman Empire came to an end, as a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regime regime] under a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy monarchy], on 1 November 1922.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-22" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-22 [17]]</sup> It formally ended, as a ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_jure de jure]'' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state state], on 24 July 1923, under the[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne Treaty of Lausanne].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-23 [18]]</sup> The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Turkey Republic of Turkey], which was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923, became one of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Successor_states successor states] of the Ottoman Empire<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-24" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-24 [19]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-25" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-25 [20]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-26" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-26 [21]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-27" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-27 [22]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-28" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-28 [23]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-29" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-29 [24]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-30" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-30 [25]]</sup> as part of the treaty.</p>
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| ==History==
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| ===Rise of the Ottoman Empire (1299–1453)===
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| Main article: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire Rise of the Ottoman Empire]Further information: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Dynasty Ottoman Dynasty] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kay%C4%B1_tribe Kayı tribe][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nicopol_final_battle_1398.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nicopol_final_battle_1398.jpg]The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Nicopolis Battle of Nicopolis] in 1396<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">With the demise of the Seljuk [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultanate_of_Rum Sultanate of Rum] (c. 1300), [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia Anatolia] was divided into a patchwork of independent states, the so-called [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolian_Beyliks Ghazi emirates]. By 1300, a weakened [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire Byzantine Empire] had lost most of its Anatolian provinces to ten Ghazi principalities. One of the Ghazi emirates was led by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osman_I Osman I] (from which the name Ottoman is derived), son of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ertu%C4%9Frul Ertuğrul], around [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eski%C5%9Fehir Eskişehir] in western Anatolia. In the foundation myth expressed in the medieval Turkish story known as "[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osman%27s_Dream Osman's Dream]", the young Osman was inspired to conquest by a prescient vision of empire (according to his dream, the empire is a big tree whose roots spread through three continents and whose branches cover the sky).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-kin24_31-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-kin24-31 [26]]</sup><sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap; ">[''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed citation needed]'']</sup> According to his dream the tree, which was Osman's Empire, issued four rivers from its roots, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigris Tigris], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrates Euphrates], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile Nile] and the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danube Danube].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-kin24_31-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-kin24-31 [26]]</sup> Additionally, the tree shaded four mountain ranges, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains Caucasus], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurus_Mountains Taurus], the[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_Mountains Atlas] and the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkan_Mountains Balkan] ranges.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-kin24_31-2" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-kin24-31 [26]]</sup> During his reign as Sultan, Osman I, extended the frontiers of Ottoman settlement toward the edge of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire Byzantine Empire]. He also moved the Ottoman capital to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bursa Bursa], and shaped the early political development of the nation.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">In this period, a formal [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruling_institution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire Ottoman government] was created whose institutions would change drastically over the life of the empire. The government used the legal entity known as the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire) millet], under which religious and ethnic minorities were allowed to manage their own affairs with substantial independence from central control.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Balkans Balkans]. The important city of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessaloniki Thessaloniki]was captured from the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Venice Venetians] in 1387. The Ottoman victory at the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kosovo Battle of Kosovo] in 1389 effectively marked the end of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia Serbian] power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Nicopolis Battle of Nicopolis] in 1396, widely regarded as the last large-scale [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusades crusade] of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages Middle Ages], failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottomans. With the extension of Ottoman dominion into the Balkans, the strategic [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sieges_of_Constantinople#Ottoman_Sieges conquest of Constantinople] became a crucial objective. The Empire controlled nearly all former [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire Byzantine lands] surrounding the city, but the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Greeks Byzantines] were temporarily relieved when [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur Timur] invaded Anatolia in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ankara Battle of Ankara] in 1402. He took Sultan [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayezid_I Bayezid I] as a prisoner. Part of the Ottoman territories in the Balkans (such as Thessaloniki, Macedonia and Kosovo) were temporarily lost after 1402, but were later recovered by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murad_II Murad II] between the 1430s and 1450s.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The capture of Bayezid I threw the Turks into disorder. The state fell into a civil war that lasted from 1402 to 1413, as Bayezid's sons fought over succession. It ended when [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed_I Mehmed I] emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power, bringing an end to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Interregnum Interregnum]. His grandson, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed_II Mehmed the Conqueror], reorganized the state and the military, and demonstrated his martial prowess by capturing [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople Constantinople] on 29 May 1453, at the age of 21.</p>
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| ===Growth (1453–1683)===
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| Main article: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_of_the_Ottoman_Empire Growth of the Ottoman Empire]<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">This period in Ottoman history can roughly be divided into two distinct eras: an era of territorial, economic, and cultural growth before 1566, followed by an era of relative military and political stagnation.</p>
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| ====Expansion and apogee (1453–1566)====
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed_II Mehmed II] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople enters Constantinople] by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fausto_Zonaro Fausto Zonaro].<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The Ottoman conquest of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople Constantinople] in 1453 by Mehmed II cemented the status of the Empire as the preeminent power in southeastern Europe and the eastern [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean Mediterranean]. After taking Constantinople, Mehmed met with the Orthodox patriarch, Gennadios and worked out an arrangement in which the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodox_Church Orthodox Church], in exchange for being able to maintain its autonomy and land, accepted Ottoman authority.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_32-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-ReferenceB-32 [27]]</sup> Because of bad relations between the latter Byzantine Empire and the states of western Europe as epitomized by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loukas_Notaras Loukas Notaras]'s famous remark "Better the Sultan's turban than the Cardinal's Hat", the majority of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman rule as preferable to Venetian rule.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_32-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-ReferenceB-32 [27]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Mehmed II made Constantinople (present-day [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul Istanbul]) the new capital of the Ottoman Empire, and he assumed the title of ''Kayser-i Rûm'' (''Caesar Romanus'' = Roman Emperor). The Russian [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsar Tsars] also claimed to be the successors to the eastern imperial title. To consolidate his claim, Mehmed II wanted to gain control over the Western capital, Rome, and Ottoman forces occupied parts of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Peninsula Italian Peninsula]. They started with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_invasion_of_Otranto invasion of Otranto] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apulia Apulia] on 28 July 1480. After Mehmed II's death on 3 May 1481 the campaign in Italy was cancelled and Ottoman forces retreated.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">During this period in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_of_the_Ottoman_Empire long period of conquest and expansion], extending its borders deep into Europe and North Africa. Conquests on land were driven by the discipline and innovation of the Ottoman military; and on the sea, the Ottoman Navy aided this expansion significantly. The navy also contested and protected key seagoing trade routes, in competition with the Italian city states in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea Black Sea], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean_Sea Aegean]and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean Mediterranean] seas and the Portuguese in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Sea Red Sea] and Indian Ocean.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The state also flourished economically thanks to its control of the major overland trade routes between [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe Europe] and Asia.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-33" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-33 [28]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The Empire prospered under the rule of a line of committed and effective [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Dynasty Sultans]. Sultan [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selim_I Selim I] (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the Empire's eastern and southern frontiers by defeating [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismail_I Shah Ismail] of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid_dynasty Safavid] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persia Persia], in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Chaldiran Battle of Chaldiran].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-34" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-34 [29]]</sup> Selim I established [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Ottoman_Egypt Ottoman rule in Egypt], and created a naval presence on the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Sea Red Sea]. After this Ottoman expansion, a competition started between the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_Empire Portuguese Empire] and the Ottoman Empire to become the dominant power in the region.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-35" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-35 [30]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Selim's successor, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent Suleiman the Magnificent] (1520–1566), further expanded upon Selim's conquests. After capturing [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgrade Belgrade] in 1521, Suleiman conquered the southern and central parts of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary Kingdom of Hungary]. (The western, northern and northeastern parts remained independent.)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-36" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-36 [31]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-37" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-37 [32]]</sup></p>
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Mohacs_1526.png][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Mohacs_1526.png][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs Battle of Mohács] (1526) and the Ottoman conquest of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Hungary Hungary].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Barbarossa_Hayreddin_Pasha.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Barbarossa_Hayreddin_Pasha.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapudan-i_Derya Kapudan-i Derya] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayreddin_Barbarossa Hayreddin Barbarossa][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TheTurkishEmperorSuleiman.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TheTurkishEmperorSuleiman.jpg]The emperor [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent Suleiman the Magnificent] in the 1530s[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Preveza_(1538).jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Preveza_(1538).jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbarossa_Hayreddin_Pasha Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha] defeated the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_League_(1538) Holy League] of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor Charles V] under the command of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea_Doria Andrea Doria] at the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Preveza Battle of Preveza] in 1538 (painted 1866).<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">After his victory in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs Battle of Mohács] in 1526, he established [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Hungary Ottoman rule] in the territory of present-day Hungary (except the western part) and other [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Europe Central European] territories, (See also: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Hungarian_Wars Ottoman–Hungarian Wars]). He then laid [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Vienna siege to Vienna] in 1529, but failed to take the city after the onset of winter forced his retreat.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-38" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-38 [33]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">In 1532, he made another [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_War_in_Hungary attack] on Vienna, but was repulsed in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_G%C3%BCns Siege of Güns], 97 kilometres (60 mi) south of the city at the fortress of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%91szeg Güns].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Wheatcroft59_39-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Wheatcroft59-39 [34]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Thompson442_40-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Thompson442-40 [35]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-.C3.81goston_and_Alan_Masters583_41-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-.C3.81goston_and_Alan_Masters583-41 [36]]</sup> In the other version of the story, the city's commander, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Juri%C5%A1i%C4%87 Nikola Jurišić], was offered terms for a nominal surender.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Turnbull51_42-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Turnbull51-42 [37]]</sup> However, Suleiman withdrew at the arrival of the August rains and did not continue towards Vienna as previously planned, but turned homeward instead.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Turnbull51_42-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Turnbull51-42 [37]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Vambery298_43-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Vambery298-43 [38]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">After further advances by the Ottomans in 1543, the Habsburg ruler [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor Ferdinand] officially recognized Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547. During the reign of Suleiman, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transylvania Transylvania], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallachia Wallachia] and, intermittently, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldavia Moldavia], became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. In the east, the Ottomans took [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad Baghdad]from the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persia Persians] in 1535, gaining control of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia Mesopotamia] and naval access to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulf Persian Gulf]. By the end of Suleiman's reign, the Empire's population totaled about 15,000,000 people.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Kinross206_44-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Kinross206-44 [39]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Suleiman's expansion into the Central Mediterranean was however halted in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta Malta] in 1565. During a summer-long siege which was later to be known as the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Malta_(1565) Siege of Malta], the Ottoman forces which numbered around 50,000 fought the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_of_St.John Knights of St.John] and the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maltese_people Maltese] garrison which in total numbered around 6,000. Stubborn resistance by the Knights and the Maltese as well as infighting between the Turkish leaders led to the lifting of the Siege in September. The Ottomans' defeat in Malta in 1565 was the second and last one experienced by Suleiman the Magnificent, after the Ottoman defeat in Vienna in 1529.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Under Selim and Suleiman, the Empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea Mediterranean Sea].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-45" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-45 [40]]</sup> The exploits of the Ottoman admiral[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbarossa_Khair_ad_Din_Pasha Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha], who commanded the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Navy Ottoman Navy] during Suleiman's reign, led to a number of military victories over Christian navies. Among these were the conquest of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunis Tunis] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria Algeria] from Spain; and the capture of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice Nice] from the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire Holy Roman Empire] in 1543.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">This last conquest occurred on behalf of France as a joint venture between the forces of the French king [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_I_of_France Francis I] and those of Barbarossa.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-46" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-46 [41]]</sup> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Modern_France France] and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg Habsburg] rule in both [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Europe Southern] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Europe Central Europe], became strong allies during this period. The alliance was economic and military, as the sultans granted France the right of trade within the Empire without levy of taxation. By this time, the Ottoman Empire was a significant and accepted part of the European political sphere. It made a military alliance with France, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_England Kingdom of England] and the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Republic Dutch Republic] against[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg_Spain Habsburg Spain], Italy and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archduchy_of_Austria Habsburg Austria].</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">As the 16th century progressed, Ottoman naval superiority was challenged by the growing sea powers of western Europe, particularly [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal Portugal], in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulf Persian Gulf], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean Indian Ocean] and the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maluku_Islands Spice Islands]. With the Ottomans blockading sea-lanes to the East and South, the European powers were driven to find another way to the ancient silk and spice routes, now under Ottoman control. On land, the Empire was preoccupied by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman-Habsburg_wars military campaigns in Austria] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persia Persia], two widely separated theatres of war. The strain of these conflicts on the Empire's resources, and the logistics of maintaining lines of supply and communication across such vast distances, ultimately rendered its sea efforts unsustainable and unsuccessful. The overriding military need for defence on the western and eastern frontiers of the Empire eventually made effective long-term engagement on a global scale impossible.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap; ">[''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed citation needed]'']</sup></p>
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| ====Revolts and revival (1566–1683)====
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Si%C3%A9ge_de_la_flotte_turc.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Si%C3%A9ge_de_la_flotte_turc.jpg]The successful [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Nice Ottoman siege of Nice] in 1543 was followed by the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_wintering_in_Toulon wintering in Toulon of the Ottoman fleet] until 1544.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Minorca_by_Piri_Reis.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Minorca_by_Piri_Reis.jpg]The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_invasion_of_the_Balearic_islands_(1558) Ottoman invasion of the Balearic Islands] in 1558 and assaults on the port cities of the[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain Spanish mainland] led to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba Battle of Djerba] in 1560.<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The effective military and bureaucratic structures of the previous century also came under strain during a protracted period of misrule by weak Sultans. But in spite of these difficulties, the Empire remained a major expansionist power until the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna Battle of Vienna] in 1683, which marked the end of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Europe Ottoman expansion into Europe].</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">European states initiated efforts at this time to curb Ottoman control of the traditional overland trade routes between East Asia and Western Europe, which started with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road Silk Road]. Western European states began to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly by establishing their own maritime routes to Asia [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Discovery through new discoveries at sea]. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal Portuguese]discovery of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope Cape of Good Hope] in 1488 initiated [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean_campaigns a series of Ottoman-Portuguese naval wars] in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean Indian Ocean] throughout the 16th century. Economically, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet huge influx] of[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_dollar Spanish silver] from the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_World New World] caused a sharp devaluation of the Ottoman currency and rampant inflation. This had serious negative consequences at all levels of Ottoman society.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The expansion of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia Muscovite Russia] under [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_IV Ivan IV] (1533–1584) into the Volga and Caspian region at the expense of the Tatar khanates disrupted the northern pilgrimage and trade routes. A highly ambitious plan to counter this conceived by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha Sokollu Mehmed Pasha], Grand Vizier under [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selim_II Selim II], in the shape of a Don-Volga canal (begun June 1569), combined with an attack on Astrakhan, failed, the canal being abandoned with the onset of winter. Henceforth the Empire returned to its existing strategy of utilizing the Crimean Khanate as its bulwark against Russia.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-47" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-47 [42]]</sup> In 1571, the Crimean khan [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devlet_I_Giray Devlet I Giray], supported by the Ottomans, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Crimean_War_(1571) burned Moscow].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-48" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-48 [43]]</sup> The next year, the invasion was repeated but repelled at the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Molodi Battle of Molodi]. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimean_Khanate Crimean Khanate] continued to invade Eastern Europe in a series of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatar_invasions slave raids],<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-49" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-49 [44]]</sup> and remained a significant power in Eastern Europe and a threat to Muscovite Russia in particular until the end of the 17th century.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-50" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-50 [45]]</sup></p>
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Lepanto_1571.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto_(1571) Battle of Lepanto] in 1571.<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">In southern Europe, a coalition of Catholic powers, led by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_II_of_Spain Philip II of Spain], formed an alliance to challenge Ottoman naval strength in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea Mediterranean Sea]. Their victory over the Ottoman fleet at the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto_(1571) Battle of Lepanto (1571)] was a startling blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility. However, historians today stress the symbolic and not the strictly military significance of the battle, for within six months of the defeat a new Ottoman fleet of some 250 sail including eight modern [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galleass galleasses]<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Kinross.2C_272_51-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Kinross.2C_272-51 [46]]</sup> had been built, with the harbours of Constantinople turning out a new ship every day at the height of the construction. In discussions with a Venetian minister, the Ottoman Grand Vizier commented: "In capturing Cyprus from you, we have cut off one of your arms; in defeating our fleet you have merely shaved off our beard".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Kinross.2C_272_51-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Kinross.2C_272-51 [46]]</sup> The Ottoman naval recovery persuaded Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, and the Ottomans were able to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-52" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-52 [47]]</sup> However, what could not be replaced were the experienced naval officers and sailors. The Battle of Lepanto was far more damaging to the Ottoman navy in sapping experienced manpower than the loss of ships, which were rapidly replaced.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-53" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-53 [48]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">By contrast, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg Habsburg] frontier had settled into a reasonably permanent border, marked only by relatively minor battles concentrating on the possession of individual fortresses. The stalemate was caused by a stiffening of the Habsburg defences<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-54" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-54 [49]]</sup> and reflected simple geographical limits: in the pre-mechanized age, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna Vienna] marked the furthest point that an Ottoman army could march from Constantinople during the early spring to late autumn campaigning season. It also reflected the difficulties imposed on the Empire by the need to support two separate fronts: one against the Austrians (see: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Europe Ottoman wars in Europe]), and the other against a rival Islamic state, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid Safavids] of Persia (see:[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Near_East Ottoman wars in Near East]).</p>
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Mezokeresztes_1596.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Mezokeresztes_1596.jpg]The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Keresztes Battle of Keresztes] (1596) was part of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_War_(Ottoman_wars) Long War (1593–1606)] between the Ottoman and Habsburg empires, which ended with Ottoman victory, resulting in the[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_of_Zsitvatorok Peace of Zsitvatorok] in 1606.<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">On the battlefield, the Ottomans gradually fell behind the Europeans in military technology as the innovation that fed the Empire's forceful expansion became stifled by growing religious and intellectual conservatism.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-55" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-55 [50]]</sup> Changes in European military tactics and weaponry in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_revolution military revolution] caused the once-feared [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sipahi Sipahi] cavalry to lose military relevance. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_War_(Ottoman_wars) Long War] against [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg Habsburg] Austria (1593–1606) created the need for greater numbers of infantry equipped with firearms. This resulted in a relaxation of recruitment policy and a significant growth in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janissary Janissary] corps numbers. This contributed to problems of indiscipline, lack of effectiveness, and outright rebelliousness within the corps, which the government wrestled with but never fully solved during (and beyond) this whole period.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-56" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-56 [51]]</sup> The development of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pike_and_shot pike and shot]and later linear tactics with increased use of firearms by Europeans proved deadly against the massed infantry in close formation used by the Ottomans. Irregular sharpshooters (Sekban) were also recruited for the same reasons and on demobilization turned to brigandage in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jelali_revolts Jelali revolts] (1595–1610), which engendered widespread anarchy in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-57" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-57 [52]]</sup> With the Empire's population reaching 30,000,000 people by 1600, shortage of land placed further pressure on the government.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Kinross281_58-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Kinross281-58 [53]]</sup></p>
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_t%C3%B6r%C3%B6k_kori_Esztergom_l%C3%A1tk%C3%A9pe._V%C3%ADzfestm%C3%A9ny,_1664.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_t%C3%B6r%C3%B6k_kori_Esztergom_l%C3%A1tk%C3%A9pe._V%C3%ADzfestm%C3%A9ny,_1664.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Esztergom_(1543) Ottoman city] of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esztergom Estergon] in 1664.<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">However, the 17th century was not simply an era of stagnation and decline, but also a key period in which the Ottoman state and its structures began to adapt to new pressures and new realities, internal and external. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultanate_of_women Sultanate of women] (1648–1656) was a period in which the political influence of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Harem Imperial Harem] was dominant, as the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. This was not wholly unprecedented; [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxelana Hürrem Sultan], who established herself in the early 1530s as the successor of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurbanu Nurbanu], the first [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valide_Sultan Valide Sultan], was described by the Venetian [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baylo Baylo] Andrea Giritti as "a woman of the utmost goodness, courage and wisdom" even though she "thwarted some while rewarding others".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-59" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-59 [54]]</sup> But the inadequacy of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibrahim_I Ibrahim I] (1640–1648) and the minority accession of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed_IV Mehmed IV] in 1646 created a significant crisis of rule, which the dominant women of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Harem Imperial Harem] filled. The most prominent women of this period were [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6sem_Sultan Kösem Sultan] and her daughter-in-law [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turhan_Hatice Turhan Hatice], whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem's murder in 1651.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-60" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-60 [55]]</sup></p>
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vienna_Battle_1683.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna Second Siege of Vienna] in 1683.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boj_s_Turki-Valvasor.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boj_s_Turki-Valvasor.jpg]The Ottoman army battling the[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars Habsburgs] in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenia Slovenia] during the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Turkish_War Great Turkish War] of 1662–1699.<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">This period gave way to the highly significant [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCl%C3%BC_Era Köprülü Era] (1656–1703), during which effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Vizier Grand Viziers] from the Köprülü family. On September 15, 1656 the octogenarian [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCl%C3%BC_Mehmed_Pasha Köprülü Mehmed Pasha] accepted the seals of office having received guarantees from the Valide [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turhan_Hatice Turhan Hatice] of unprecedented authority and freedom from interference. A fierce conservative disciplinarian, he successfully reasserted the central authority and the empire's military impetus. This continued under his son and successor[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6pr%C3%BCl%C3%BC_Faz%C4%B1l_Ahmed Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed] (Grand Vizier 1661–1676).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-61" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-61 [56]]</sup> The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transylvania Transylvania], the conquest of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete Crete] completed in 1669 and expansion into Polish southern [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine Ukraine], with the strongholds of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khotyn Khotyn] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamianets-Podilskyi Kamianets-Podilskyi] and the territory of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podolia Podolia] ceding to Ottoman control in 1676.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-62" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-62 [57]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end when Grand Vizier [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kara_Mustafa_Pasha Kara Mustafa Pasha] in May 1683 led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna Vienna] in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Turkish_War Great Turkish War] of 1683-1687. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_III_Sobieski Jan]<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-63" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-63 [58]]</sup> at the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna Battle of Vienna].</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The alliance of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_League_(1684) Holy League] pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna and, thus, fifteen (15) years of see-sawing warfare, culminated in the epochal [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Karlowitz Treaty of Karlowitz] (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-64" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-64 [59]]</sup> For the first time, the Ottoman Empire surrender control of significant European territories (many permanently), including [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Hungary Ottoman Hungary].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-65" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-65 [60]]</sup> The Empire had reached the end of its ability to effectively conduct an assertive, expansionist policy against its European rivals and it was to be forced from this point to adopt an essentially defensive strategy within this theatre.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Only two Sultans in this period personally exercised strong political and military control of the Empire: the vigorous [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murad_IV Murad IV] (1612–1640) recaptured [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerevan Yerevan] (1635) and Baghdad (1639) from the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavids Safavids] and reasserted central authority, albeit during a brief majority reign.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-66" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-66 [61]]</sup> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustafa_II Mustafa II] (1695–1703) led the Ottoman counter attack of 1695–6 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Zenta Zenta] (September 11, 1697).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-67" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-67 [62]]</sup></p>
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| ===Stagnation and reform (1683–1827)===
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Axel_Sparre_-_Karl_den_XII,_1682-1718,_kung_av_Sverige.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Axel_Sparre_-_Karl_den_XII,_1682-1718,_kung_av_Sverige.jpg]King [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_XII_of_Sweden Charles XII of Sweden]fled to the Ottoman Empire following his defeat against the Russians at the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Poltava Battle of Poltava]in 1709. A guest of the Turks for nearly five years, he persuaded the Ottoman Sultan [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_III Ahmed III] to declare war on Russia, which resulted in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1710%E2%80%931711) Russo-Turkish War of 1710–1711] that ended with an Ottoman victory.<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">During this period threats to the Ottoman Empire were presented by the traditional foe—the Austrian Empire—as well as by a new foe—the rising Russian Empire. The Ottomans ceded much territory in the Balkans to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg_Monarchy Austria]. Certain areas of the Empire, such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt Egypt]and Algeria, became independent in all but name, and later came under the influence of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain Britain] and France. Later, in the 18th century, centralized authority within the Ottoman Empire, gave way to varying degrees of provincial autonomy enjoyed by local governors and leaders.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">However, Russian expansion presented large and growing threat.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-LordKinross_68-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-LordKinross-68 [63]]</sup> Accordingly, King [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_XII_of_Sweden Charles XII of Sweden] was welcomed as an ally in the Ottoman Empire following his defeat by the Russians at the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Poltava Battle of Poltava] in 1709 (part of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Northern_War Great Northern War] of 1700–1721.)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-LordKinross_68-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-LordKinross-68 [63]]</sup> Charles XII persuaded the Ottoman Sultan [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_III Ahmed III] to declare war on Russia, which resulted in the Ottoman victory at the[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pruth_River_Campaign Pruth River Campaign] of 1710–1711.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-69" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-69 [64]]</sup> The subsequent [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Passarowitz Treaty of Passarowitz] signed on July 21, 1718, brought a period of peace between wars. However, the Treaty also revealed that the Ottoman Empire was on the defensive and unlikely to present any further aggression in Europe.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-70" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-70 [65]]</sup></p>
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hunting_Party_with_the_Sultan_Jean_Baptiste_Vanmour_18th_century.JPG][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hunting_Party_with_the_Sultan_Jean_Baptiste_Vanmour_18th_century.JPG]A Turkish hunting party with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed_III Ahmed III]. Painting by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_van_Mour Jean-Baptiste van Mour].<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">During the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulip_Era_in_the_Ottoman_Empire Tulip Era] (1718–1730), named for Sultan Ahmed III's love of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulip tulip] flower and its use to symbolize his peaceful reign, the Empire's policy towards Europe underwent a shift. The Empire began to improve the fortifications of its cities in the Balkan peninsula to act as a defence against European expansionism. Cultural works, fine arts and architecture flourished, with more elaborate styles that were influenced by the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque Baroque] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rococo Rococo] movements in Europe. A classic example is the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fountain_of_Ahmed_III Fountain of Ahmed III] in front of the[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topkap%C4%B1_Palace Topkapı Palace]. The famous [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flemish_people Flemish]-[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France French] painter [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_van_Mour Jean-Baptiste van Mour] visited the Ottoman Empire during the Tulip Era and crafted some of the most renowned works of art depicting scenes from daily life in the Ottoman society and the imperial court.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-71" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-71 [66]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Upon the death of Peter the Great in 1725, Catherine, Peter's wife succeeded to the throne of the Russian Empire as Czarina Catherine I. Together with Austria, Russia, under Catherine I, engaged in a war against the Ottoman Empire from 1735 until 1739. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Belgrade Treaty of Belgrade] signed on September 18, 1739, ended this war and resulted in the loss of Serbia and "Little Walachia" to Austria and the port of Azov to the Russians. However following the Treaty of Belgrade, the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of the Prussians under King Frederick the Great.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-72" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-72 [67]]</sup> This long period of Ottoman peace and, indeed, stagnation is typically characterized by historians as an era of failed reforms. In the latter part of this period there were [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Ottoman_Empire#Education educational and technological reforms], including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul_Technical_University Istanbul Technical University].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-73" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-73 [68]]</sup> Ottoman [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Ottoman_Empire science and technology]had been highly regarded in medieval times, as a result of Ottoman scholars' synthesis of classical learning with Islamic philosophy and mathematics, and knowledge of such Chinese advances in technology as gunpowder and the magnetic compass. By this period, though, the influences had become regressive and conservative. In 1734, when an artillery school was established with French teachers in order to impart Western-style artillery methods, the Islamic clergy successfully objected under the grounds of theodicy.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_74-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-ReferenceC-74 [69]]</sup> Not until 1754 was the artillery school re-opened on a semi-secret basis.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_74-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-ReferenceC-74 [69]]</sup> Earlier, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guilds guilds] of writers had denounced the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_press printing press] as "the Devil's Invention", and were responsible for a 53-year lag between its invention by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg Johannes Gutenberg] in Europe in c. 1440 and its introduction to the Ottoman society with the first Gutenberg press in Constantinople that was established by the[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sephardic_Jews Sephardic Jews] of Spain in 1493 (who had migrated to the Ottoman Empire a year earlier, escaping from the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition Spanish Inquisition] of 1492.) However, the printing press was used only by the non-Muslims in the Ottoman Empire until the 18th century. In 1726, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibrahim_Muteferrika Ibrahim Muteferrika] convinced the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Vizier Grand Vizier] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nev%C5%9Fehirli_Damat_%C4%B0brahim_Pasha Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha], the[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Mufti Grand Mufti], and the clergy on the efficiency of the printing press, and later submitted a request to Sultan Ahmed III, who granted Muteferrika the permission to publish non-religious books (despite opposition from some [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy calligraphers] and religious leaders.)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-katip_celebi_75-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-katip_celebi-75 [70]]</sup> Muteferrika's press published its first book in 1729, and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes (each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-katip_celebi_75-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-katip_celebi-75 [70]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-watson_76-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-watson-76 [71]]</sup></p>
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Turkish_guns_1750-1800.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Turkish_guns_1750-1800.jpg]18th century [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_weapons Turkish guns] with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miquelet miquelet]locks, circa 1750-1800.<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Other tentative reforms were also enacted: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxation_in_the_Ottoman_empire taxes] were lowered, there were attempts to improve the image of the Ottoman state, and the first instances of private investment and entrepreneurship occurred.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Following the period of peace, which had lasted since 1739, Russia began to assert its expansionistic desires again in 1768. Under the pretext of pursuing fugitive Polish revolutionaries, Russian troops entered [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balta,_Ukraine Balta] an Ottoman-controlled city on the border of Bessarabia and massacred its citizens and burned the town to the ground.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-77" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-77 [72]]</sup>This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the First Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Kuchuk_Kainraji Treaty of Kuchuk Kainraji] of 1774 ended the First Russo-Turkish War and allowed that the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled Rumanian provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia would be allowed freedom to worship.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-78" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-78 [73]]</sup> Russia was made the guarantor of their right to Christian worship.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">A series of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Russo-Turkish_wars wars] were fought between the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire Russian] and Ottoman empires from the 18th to the 19th century. By the late 18th century, a number of defeats in several wars with Russia led some people in the Ottoman Empire to conclude that the reforms of "Deli Petro" (''Peter the Mad'', as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_the_Great Peter the Great] was known in Turkey) had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ReferenceC_74-2" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-ReferenceC-74 [69]]</sup></p>
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ottoman_Sultan_selim_III_1789.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ottoman_Sultan_selim_III_1789.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selim_III Selim III] receiving dignitaries during an audience at the Gate of Felicity, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topkap%C4%B1_Palace Topkapı Palace].<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_military_reform_efforts Ottoman military reform efforts] begin with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selim_III Selim III] (1789–1807) who made the first major attempts to modernize the army along European lines. These efforts, however, were hampered by reactionary movements, partly from the religious leadership, but primarily from the Janissary corps, who had become anarchic and ineffectual. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, they created a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janissary_revolts Janissary revolt]. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmud_II Mahmud II], who massacred the Janissary corps in 1826.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbian_revolution Serbian revolution] (1804–1815) marked the beginning of an era of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_nationalism national awakening] in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkans Balkans] during the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Question Eastern Question]. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzerainty Suzerainty] of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy under its own [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karadjordjevic_dynasty dynasty] was acknowledged ''de jure'' in 1830.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-79" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-79 [74]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-80" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-80 [75]]</sup> In 1821, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Greece Greeks] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence declared war] on the Sultan. A rebellion that originated in Moldavia as a diversion was followed by the main revolution in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peloponnese Peloponnese], which, along with the northern part of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Corinth Gulf of Corinth], became the first parts of the Ottoman empire to achieve independence (in 1829). By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sick_man_of_Europe "sick man"] by Europeans. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzerainty suzerain states] – the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia Principality of Serbia], Wallachia, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldavia Moldavia] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Montenegro Montenegro] -- moved towards ''de jure''independence during the 1860s and 1870s.</p>
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| ===Decline and modernization (1828–1908)===
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| Main article: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire Decline of the Ottoman Empire]<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">During this period, the Empire faced challenges in defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation. The Empire ceased to enter conflicts on its own and began to forge alliances with European countries such as France, the Netherlands, Britain, and Russia. As an example, in the 1853 [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimean_War Crimean War], the Ottomans united with Britain, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_French_Empire France], and the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia Kingdom of Sardinia] against [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire Russia].</p>
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| ====Modernization====
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sultan_Mahmud_II.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sultan_Mahmud_II.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmud_II Mahmud II] started the modernization of[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey Turkey] by paving the way for the Edict of[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanzimat Tanzimat] in 1839 (implemented immediately after his death by his son Sultan[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd%C3%BClmecid_I Abdülmecid]) which instituted European-style clothing, uniforms, weapons, architecture, education, legislation, banking, institutional organization, agricultural and industrial innovations, new technologies in transport and communications, and land reform.<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">During the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanzimat Tanzimat] period (from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language Arabic] تنظيم''tanẓīm'', meaning "organization") (1839–1876), the government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, the decriminalisation of homosexuality, the replacement of religious law with secular law <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-81" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-81 [76]]</sup> and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guild guilds] with modern [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factory factories]. In 1856, the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatt-%C4%B1_H%C3%BCmayun Hatt-ı Hümayun]'' promised equality for all Ottoman citizens regardless of their ethnicity and religious confession; which thus widened the scope of the 1839 [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatt-i_Sharif ''Hatt-ı Şerif'' of Gülhane].</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Overall, the Tanzimat reforms had far-reaching effects. Those educated in the schools established during the Tanzimat period included[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk Mustafa Kemal Atatürk] and other progressive leaders and thinkers of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Turkey Republic of Turkey] and of many other former Ottoman states in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkans Balkans], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East Middle East] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Africa North Africa]. These reforms included<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NTVtarih_82-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-NTVtarih-82 [77]]</sup> guarantees to ensure the Ottoman subjects perfect security for their lives, honour, and property; the introduction of the first Ottoman paper [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banknotes banknotes] (1840) and opening of the first [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_office post offices] (1840); the reorganization of the finance system according to the French model (1840); the reorganization of the Civil and Criminal Code according to the French model (1840); the establishment of the ''Meclis-i Maarif-i Umumiye'' (1841) which was the prototype of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era_(Ottoman_Empire) First Ottoman Parliament] (1876); the reorganization of the army and a regular method of recruiting, levying the army, and fixing the duration of military service (1843–44); the adoption of an [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_imperial_anthem Ottoman national anthem] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_flag Ottoman national flag] (1844); the first nationwide Ottoman [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census census] in 1844 (only male citizens were counted); the first national identity cards (officially named the ''Mecidiye'' identity papers, or informally''kafa kağıdı'' (''head paper'') documents, 1844); the institution of a Council of Public Instruction (1845) and the Ministry of Education (''Mekatib-i Umumiye Nezareti'', 1847, which later became the ''Maarif Nezareti'', 1857); the abolition of slavery and slave trade (1847); the establishment of the first modern universities (''darülfünun'', 1848), academies (1848) and teacher schools (''darülmuallimin'', 1848); establishment of the Ministry of Healthcare (''Tıbbiye Nezareti'', 1850); the Commerce and Trade Code (1850); establishment of the Academy of Sciences (''Encümen-i Daniş'', 1851); establishment of the ''Şirket-i Hayriye'' which operated the first steam-powered commuter ferries (1851); the first European style courts (''Meclis-i Ahkam-ı Adliye'', 1853) and supreme judiciary council (''Meclis-i Ali-yi Tanzimat'', 1853); establishment of the modern Municipality of Istanbul (''Şehremaneti'', 1854) and the City Planning Council (''İntizam-ı Şehir Komisyonu'', 1855); the abolition of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jizya capitation (Jizya) tax] on non-Muslims, with a regular method of establishing and collecting taxes (1856); non-Muslims were allowed to become soldiers (1856); various provisions for the better administration of the public service and advancement of commerce; the establishment of the first [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraph telegraph] networks (1847–1855) and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway railroads] (1856); the replacement of guilds with factories; the establishment of the Ottoman Central Bank (originally established as the ''Bank-ı Osmanî'' in 1856, and later reorganized as the ''Bank-ı Osmanî-i Şahane'' in 1863)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-83" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-83 [78]]</sup> and the Ottoman Stock Exchange (''Dersaadet Tahvilat Borsası'', established in 1866);<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-84" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-84 [79]]</sup> the Land Code (''Arazi Kanunnamesi'', 1857); permission for private sector publishers and printing firms with the ''Serbesti-i Kürşad Nizamnamesi'' (1857); establishment of the School of Economical and Political Sciences (''Mekteb-i Mülkiye'', 1859); the Press and Journalism Regulation Code (''Matbuat Nizamnamesi'', 1864); among others.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NTVtarih_82-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-NTVtarih-82 [77]]</sup></p>
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sultan_Abdulmecid_Pera_Museum_3_b.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sultan_Abdulmecid_Pera_Museum_3_b.jpg]The reign of Sultan [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd%C3%BClmecid_I Abdülmecid] was marked by the implementation of the Tanzimat reforms; the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimean_War Crimean War] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_public_debt first foreign debt] of the Ottoman Empire in 1854 (the payments of which were completed by the Republic of Turkey a century later, in 1954);<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ottomandebthistory_85-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Ottomandebthistory-85 [80]]</sup> and the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1856) Treaty of Paris (1856)]which secured Ottoman control over the[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkan_peninsula Balkan peninsula] and the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea Black Sea] basin until the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878) Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878].<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul on 23 October 1840.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-PTT_86-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-PTT-86 [81]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-PTT2_87-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-PTT2-87 [82]]</sup> The first post office was the ''Postahane-i Amire'' near the courtyard of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mosque_(Istanbul) Yeni Mosque].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-PTT_86-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-PTT-86 [81]]</sup> In 1876 the first international mailing network between Istanbul and the lands beyond the vast Ottoman Empire was established.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-PTT_86-2" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-PTT-86 [81]]</sup> In 1901 the first money transfers were made through the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_office post offices] and the first cargo services became operational.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-PTT_86-3" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-PTT-86 [81]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Morse Samuel Morse] received his first ever patent for the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraph telegraph] in 1847, at the old Beylerbeyi Palace (the present [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beylerbeyi_Palace Beylerbeyi Palace] was built in 1861–1865 on the same location) in Constantinople, which was issued by Sultan [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd%C3%BClmecid_I Abdülmecid] who personally tested the new invention.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-88" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-88 [83]]</sup> Following this successful test, installation works of the first telegraph line (Istanbul-[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edirne Edirne]-[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eumnu Şumnu])<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NTVtarih2_89-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-NTVtarih2-89 [84]]</sup> began on 9 August 1847.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-telekomhistory_90-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-telekomhistory-90 [85]]</sup> In 1855 the Ottoman telegraph network became operational and the Telegraph Administration was established.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-PTT_86-4" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-PTT-86 [81]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-PTT2_87-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-PTT2-87 [82]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-NTVtarih2_89-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-NTVtarih2-89 [84]]</sup> In 1871 the Ministry of Post and the Telegraph Administration were merged, becoming the Ministry of Post and Telegraph.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-PTT2_87-2" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-PTT2-87 [82]]</sup> In July 1881 the first [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone telephone] circuit in Istanbul was established between the Ministry of Post and Telegraph in the Soğukçeşme quarter and the Postahane-i Amire in the Yenicami quarter.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-telekomhistory_90-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-telekomhistory-90 [85]]</sup> On 23 May 1909, the first manual [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_exchange telephone exchange] with a 50 line capacity entered service in the ''Büyük Postane'' (Grand Post Office) of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirkeci Sirkeci].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-telekomhistory_90-2" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-telekomhistory-90 [85]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The first two [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway railway] lines in the Ottoman Empire entered service in 1856; these were the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo Cairo]-[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria Alexandria] line (1856) and the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0zmir İzmir]-[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayd%C4%B1n Aydın] line (1856), the latter being operated by the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriental_Railway_Company Oriental Railway Company]. They were followed by the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constan%C8%9Ba Köstence]-[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cernavod%C4%83 Boğazköy] railway line (1860); the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smyrne_Cassaba_%26_Prolongements Smyrne Cassaba & Prolongements] (1863) which operated between İzmir, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afyon Afyon] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band%C4%B1rma Bandırma]; the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruse,_Bulgaria Rusçuk]–[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varna Varna] railway line (1866); the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucharest Bükreş]-[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giurgiu Yergöğü] railway line (1869); the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemins_de_fer_Orientaux Chemins de fer Orientaux] (1869) which operated between [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna Vienna], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banja_Luka Banja Luka], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarajevo Saraybosna], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni%C5%A1 Niš], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sofia Sofia], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plovdiv Filibe], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edirne Edirne] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul Istanbul] (starting from 1889 between [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris Paris] and Istanbul as the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient_Express Orient Express]); the[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemin_de_Fer_Moudania_Brousse Chemin de Fer Moudania Brousse] (1871) which operated between [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudanya Mudanya] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bursa Bursa]; the Istanbul-[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belovo,_Bulgaria Belovo] railway line (1873); the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skopje Üsküp]-[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessaloniki Selânik] railway line (1873); the[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mersin-Tarsus-Adana_Railway Mersin-Tarsus-Adana Railway] (1882); the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemins_de_Fer_Ottomans_d%27Anatolie Chemins de Fer Ottomans d'Anatolie] (1888) which operated between Istanbul, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izmit Izmit], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adapazar%C4%B1 Adapazarı], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilecik Bilecik], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eski%C5%9Fehir Eskişehir], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ankara Ankara],[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BCtahya Kütahya] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konya Konya]; the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaffa%E2%80%93Jerusalem_railway Jaffa–Jerusalem railway] (1892); the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Lebanon Beirut-Damascus railway] (1895); the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Railway Baghdad Railway] (1904) which operated between Istanbul, Konya,[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adana Adana], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleppo Aleppo] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad Baghdad]; the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezreel_Valley_railway Jezreel Valley railway] (1905) which operated between [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acre,_Israel Acre], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haifa Haifa], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosra Bosra], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hauran Hauran], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yagur Yagur], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daraa Daraa], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samakh,_Tiberias Samakh], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beit_She%27an Beit She'an] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silat_ad-Dhahr Silat ad-Dhahr]; the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hejaz_Railway Hejaz Railway] (1908) which operated between Istanbul, Konya, Adana, Aleppo, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damascus Damascus], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amman Amman], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabuk,_Saudi_Arabia Tabuk] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medina Medina]; the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Railway_(Israel) Eastern Railway] (1915) which operated between [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulkarm Tulkarm] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lod Lod]; and the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway_to_Beersheba Beersheba Railway] (1915) which connected [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahal_Sorek Nahal Sorek] with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beit_Hanoun Beit Hanoun] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beersheba Beersheba].</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kan%C3%BBn-%C4%B1_Es%C3%A2s%C3%AE Kanûn-ı Esâsî]'' (meaning "[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_Law Basic Law]" in Ottoman Turkish), written by members of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Ottomans Young Ottomans], which was promulgated on November 23, 1876. It established the freedom of belief and equality of all citizens before the law. The Empire's [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era_(Ottoman_Empire) First Constitutional era], was short-lived. But the idea of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottomanism Ottomanism] proved influential. A group of reformers known as the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Ottomans Young Ottomans], primarily educated in western [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University universities], believed that a[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy constitutional monarchy] would give an answer to the Empire's growing social unrest. Through a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_coup military coup] in 1876, they forced Sultan [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd%C3%BClaziz Abdülaziz] (1861–1876) to abdicate in favour of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murad_V Murad V]. However, Murad V was mentally ill and was deposed within a few months. His heir-apparent, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd%C3%BClhamid_II Abdülhamid II] (1876–1909), was invited to assume power on the condition that he would declare a constitutional monarchy, which he did on November 23, 1876. The parliament survived for only two years before the sultan suspended it. When forced to reconvene it, he abolished the representative body instead. This ended the effectiveness of the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kan%C3%BBn-%C4%B1_Es%C3%A2s%C3%AE Kanûn-ı Esâsî]''.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The Christian [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire) millets] gained privileges, such as in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_National_Constitution Armenian National Constitution] of 1863. This [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Porte Divan]-approved form of the ''Code of Regulations'' consisted of 150 articles drafted by the Armenian intelligentsia. Another institution was the newly formed [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_National_Assembly_(Ottoman_Empire) Armenian National Assembly].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-91" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-91 [86]]</sup> The Christian population of the empire, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment on the part of the latter.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_92-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-ReferenceA-92 [87]]</sup> In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians with 140,000 students in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the same time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_92-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-ReferenceA-92 [87]]</sup> In turn, the higher educational levels of the Christians allowed them to play a large role in the economy.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_92-2" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-ReferenceA-92 [87]]</sup> In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Constantinople, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_92-3" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-ReferenceA-92 [87]]</sup></p>
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| ====Crimean War====
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimean_War Crimean War] (1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_of_the_Ottoman_Empire declining Ottoman Empire]. Most of the conflict took place on the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimea Crimean] Peninsula, but there were smaller campaigns in western [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia Anatolia], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus Caucasus], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Sea Baltic Sea], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean Pacific Ocean] and the[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Sea White Sea]. It is often considered to be one of the first "modern" wars, as it introduced technical changes which affected the future course of warfare, including the first tactical use of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railway railways] and the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraph telegraph].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-royle1_93-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-royle1-93 [88]]</sup> It is also famous for the work of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Nightingale Florence Nightingale] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Seacole Mary Seacole], who pioneered modern nursing practices while caring for wounded British soldiers.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-94" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-94 [89]]</sup> The Crimean War was one of the first wars to be documented extensively in written reports and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_photography photographs]: notably by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Howard_Russell William Russell] (for ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times The Times]'' newspaper) and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Fenton Roger Fenton], respectively. News correspondence reaching Britain from the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimea Crimea] was the first time the public were kept informed of the day-to-day realities of war.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The Ottoman Empire took its [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_public_debt first foreign loans] on 4 August 1854,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ottomandebthistory_85-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Ottomandebthistory-85 [80]]</sup> shortly after the beginning of the Crimean War.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-95" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-95 [90]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The war caused an exodus of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimean_Tatars Crimean Tatars]. From the total Tatar population of 300,000 in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tauride_Province Tauride Province], about 200,000 Crimean Tatars moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-96" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-96 [91]]</sup> Toward the end of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasian_Wars Caucasian Wars], many [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circassians Circassians] fled their homelands in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus Caucasus] and settled in the Ottoman Empire. Since the 19th century, the exodus to present-day Turkey by the large portion of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam Muslim] peoples from the Balkans, Caucasus, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimea Crimea] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete Crete],<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-97" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-97 [92]]</sup> had great influence in molding the country's fundamental features. These people were called ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhajir_(Turkey) Muhacir]'' under a general definition.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-98" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-98 [93]]</sup> By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_92-4" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-ReferenceA-92 [87]]</sup> Crimean Tartar refugees in the late 19th century played an especially notable role in seeking to modernize Turkish education.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_92-5" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-ReferenceA-92 [87]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The subsequent [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1856) Treaty of Paris (1856)] secured Ottoman control over the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkan_peninsula Balkan peninsula] and the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea Black Sea] basin until the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878) Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878].</p>
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| ====Ethnic nationalism====
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_under_the_Ottoman_Empire rise of nationalism] swept through many countries during the 19th century, and it affected territories within the Ottoman Empire. A burgeoning [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalism national consciousness], together with a growing sense of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism ethnic nationalism], made nationalistic thought one of the most significant Western ideas imported to the Ottoman empire. It was forced to deal with nationalism both within and beyond its borders. The number of revolutionary [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parties_in_Ottoman_Empire political parties] rose dramatically. Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching consequences during the 19th century and determined much of Ottoman policy during the early 20th century. Many Ottoman Turks questioned whether the policies of the state were to blame: some felt that the sources of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_conflict ethnic conflict] were external, and unrelated to issues of governance. While this era was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question.</p>
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Punch_-_The_Dogs_of_War.png][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Punch_-_The_Dogs_of_War.png]''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punch_(magazine) Punch]'' cartoon from 17 June 1876. Russian Empire preparing to let slip the Balkan "Dogs of War" to attack the Ottoman Empire, while policeman [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bull John Bull] (UK) warns Russia to take care. Supported by Russia, Serbia and Montenegro declared war on the Ottoman Empire the following day.<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">In 1804 the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbian_revolution Serbian revolution] against Ottoman rule erupted in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkans Balkans], running in parallel with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyrian_provinces Napoleonic invasion]. By 1817, when the revolution ended, Serbia was raised to the status of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia self-governing monarchy] under nominal Ottoman [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzerainty suzerainty].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-99" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-99 [94]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-100" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-100 [95]]</sup> In 1821 the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Hellenic_Republic First Hellenic Republic] became the first [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkan Balkan] country to achieve its independence from the Ottoman Empire. It was officially recognized by the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Porte Porte] in 1829, after the end of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence Greek War of Independence].</p>
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| ====Balkans====
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| Main article: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Balkans History of the Balkans]<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The Tanzimat reforms did not halt the rise of nationalism in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danubian_Principalities Danubian Principalities] and the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia Principality of Serbia], which had been semi-independent for almost six decades. In 1875 the tributary principalities of Serbia and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Montenegro Montenegro], and the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Principalities United Principalities] of Wallachia and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldavia Moldavia], unilaterally declared their independence from the Empire. Following the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_of_1877%E2%80%931878 Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878], the empire granted independence to all three belligerent nations. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Bulgaria Bulgaria] also achieved virtual independence<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap; ">[''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed citation needed]'']</sup> (as the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Bulgaria Principality of Bulgaria]); its volunteers had participated in the Russo-Turkish war on the side of the rebelling nations.</p>
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| =====Congress of Berlin=====
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Meyers_b15_s0924a.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Meyers_b15_s0924a.jpg]Maps of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_territories_in_Europe Ottoman Europe] in 1453; 1699; 1699-1877; and 1878–1885.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-of-Ottoman-Empire-in-1900-German.svg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map-of-Ottoman-Empire-in-1900-German.svg]Map of the Ottoman Empire in 1900,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-101" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-101 [96]]</sup>with the names of the Ottoman provinces between 1878 and 1908.<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congress_of_Berlin Congress of Berlin] (13 June – 13 July 1878) was a meeting of the leading statesmen of Europe's Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire. In the wake of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878) Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)] that ended with a decisive victory for Russia and her Orthodox Christian allies (subjects of the Ottoman Empire before the war) in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkans Balkan peninsula], the urgent need was to stabilize and reorganize the Balkans, and set up new nations. German Chancellor [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck Otto von Bismarck], who led the Congress, undertook to adjust boundaries to minimize the risks of major war, while recognizing the reduced power of the Ottomans, and balance the distinct interests of the great powers.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply; [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Bulgaria Bulgaria] was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire, but was not allowed to keep all its previous territory. Bulgaria lost [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Rumelia Eastern Rumelia], which was restored to the Turks under a special administration; and Macedonia, which was returned outright to the Turks, who promised reform. Romania achieved full independence, but had to turn over part of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessarabia Bessarabia] to Russia. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Serbia Serbia] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montenegro Montenegro] finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">In 1878, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria-Hungary Austria-Hungary] unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia_Vilayet Bosnia-Herzegovina] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanjak_of_Novi_Pazar Novi Pazar], but the Ottoman government contested this move and maintained its troops in both provinces. The stalemate lasted for 30 years (Austrian and Ottoman forces coexisted in Bosnia and Novi Pazar for three decades) until 1908, when the Austrians took advantage of the political turmoil in the Ottoman Empire that stemmed from the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution Young Turk Revolution]and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnian_crisis annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina], but pulled their troops out of Novi Pazar in order to reach a compromise and avoid a war with the Turks. The Ottoman Empire lost Novi Pazar with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkan_Wars First Balkan War] in 1912.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">In return for British Prime Minister [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli Benjamin Disraeli]'s advocacy for restoring the Ottoman territories on the Balkan peninsula during the Congress of Berlin, Britain assumed the administration of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus Cyprus] in 1878<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-102" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-102 [97]]</sup> and later sent troops to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt Egypt] in 1882 with the pretext of helping the Ottoman government to put down the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urabi_Revolt Urabi Revolt]; effectively gaining control in both territories (Britain formally annexed the still nominally Ottoman territories of Cyprus and Egypt on 5 November 1914, in response to the Ottoman Empire's decision to enter [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I World War I] on the side of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Powers Central Powers].) France, on its part, occupied [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia Tunisia] in 1881.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The results were first hailed as a great achievement in peacemaking and stabilization. However, most of the participants were not fully satisfied, and grievances regarding the results festered until they exploded in world war in 1914. Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece made gains, but far less than they thought they deserved. The Ottoman Empire, called at the time the "sick man of Europe," was humiliated and significantly weakened, rendering it more liable to domestic unrest and more vulnerable to attack. Although Russia had been victorious in the war that occasioned the conference, it was humiliated at Berlin, and resented its treatment. Austria gained a great deal of territory, which angered the South Slavs, and led to decades of tensions in Bosnia and Herzogovina. Bismarck became the target of hatred of Russian nationalists and Pan-Slavists, and found that he had tied Germany too closely to Austria in the Balkans.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-103" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-103 [98]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">In the long-run, tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary intensified, as did the nationality question in the Balkans. The Congress succeeded in keeping Constantinople in Ottoman hands. It effectively disavowed Russia's victory. The Congress of Berlin returned to the Ottoman Empire territories that the previous treaty had given to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Bulgaria Principality of Bulgaria], most notably [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(region) Macedonia], thus setting up a strong revanchist demand in Bulgaria that in 1912 led to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Balkan_War First Balkan War] in which the Ottomans were defeated and lost nearly all of Europe.</p>
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| ====Egypt====
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">In 1882 British forces occupied [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt Egypt] on the pretext of bringing order. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_the_Muhammad_Ali_Dynasty#Khedivate_.281867.E2.80.931914.29 Egypt and Sudan] remained as Ottoman provinces ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_jure de jure]'' until 1914, when the Ottoman Empire joined the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Powers Central Powers] of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I World War I]. Great Britain officially annexed these two provinces and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus Cyprus] in response. Other Ottoman provinces in North Africa were lost between 1830 and 1912, starting with Algeria (occupied by France in 1830), [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia Tunisia](occupied by France in 1881) and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libya Libya] (occupied by Italy in 1912).</p>
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| ====Armenia====
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Although granted their own [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_National_Constitution constitution] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_National_Assembly_(Ottoman_Empire) national assembly] with the Tanzimat reforms, the Armenians attempted to demand implementation of Article 61 from the Ottoman government as agreed upon at the Congress of Berlin in 1878.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-104" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-104 [99]]</sup> Following pressure from the European powers and Armenians, Sultan Abdul Hamid II, in response, assigned the Hamidiye regiments to eastern Anatolia (Ottoman Armenia).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-105" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-105 [100]]</sup>These were formed mostly of irregular [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavalry cavalry] units of recruited [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurds Kurds].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-106" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-106 [101]]</sup> From 1894–96, between 100,000 to 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamidian_massacres Hamidian massacres].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-107" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-107 [102]]</sup> Armenian militants seized the Ottoman Bank headquarters in Constantinople in 1896 to bring European attention to the massacres, but they failed to gain any help.</p>
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| ====Economy====
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Economically, the Empire had difficulty in repaying the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_public_debt Ottoman public debt] to European banks, which caused the establishment of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Public_Debt_Administration Council of Administration of the Ottoman Public Debt]. By the end of the 19th century, the main reason the Empire was not overrun by Western powers was their attempt to maintain a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_of_power_in_international_relations balance of power] in the area. Both Austria and Russia wanted to increase their spheres of influence and territory at the expense of the Ottoman Empire, but were kept in check mostly by Britain, which feared Russian dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean.</p>
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| ===Dissolution (1908–1922)===
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| Main article: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_Turk_Revolution_-_Decleration_-_Armenian_Greek_Muslim_Leaders.png][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_Turk_Revolution_-_Decleration_-_Armenian_Greek_Muslim_Leaders.png]Declaration of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution Young Turk Revolution]by the leaders of the Ottoman [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire) millets].<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Constitutional_Era_(Ottoman_Empire) Second Constitutional Era] began after the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution Young Turk Revolution] (3 July 1908) with the sultan's announcement of the restoration of the [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/tr:Kanun-u_Esasi 1876 constitution] and the reconvening of the Ottoman Parliament. It marks the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]. This era is dominated by the politics of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_of_Union_and_Progress Committee of Union and Progress], and the movement that would become known as the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Turks Young Turks].</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Profiting from the civil strife, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria-Hungary Austria-Hungary] officially annexed [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina] in 1908, but pulled its troops out of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanjak_of_Novi_Pazar Sanjak of Novi Pazar], another contested region between the Austrians and Ottomans, to avoid a war. During the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italo-Turkish_War Italo-Turkish War] (1911–12) in which the Ottoman Empire lost [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libya Libya], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkan_League Balkan League] declared war against the Ottoman Empire, which lost its [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkan_peninsula Balkan] territories except [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Thrace East Thrace] and the historic Ottoman capital city of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edirne Edirne] (Adrianople) during the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkan_Wars Balkan Wars](1912–13). Some 400,000 Muslims, out of fear for Greek, Serbian or Bulgarian atrocities, left with the retreating Ottoman army.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-108" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-108 [103]]</sup> The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Railway Baghdad Railway] under German control became a source of international tension and played a role in the origins of World War I.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-109" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-109 [104]]</sup></p>
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| ====World War I (1914–1918)====
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Turkish_trenches_at_Gallipoli.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Turkish_trenches_at_Gallipoli.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk)] at the trenches of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gallipoli Gallipoli] in 1915.<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The Young Turk government had signed a secret treaty with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany Germany] and established the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman-German_Alliance Ottoman-German Alliance] in August 1914, aimed against the common Russian enemy but aligning the Empire with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany German] side. The Ottoman Empire entered [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I World War I] after the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pursuit_of_Goeben_and_Breslau ''Goeben'' and ''Breslau'' incident], in which it gave safe harbour to two German ships that were fleeing British ships. These ships then—after having officially been transferred to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Navy Ottoman Navy], but effectively still under German control—attacked the Russian port of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sevastopol Sevastopol], thus dragging the Empire into the war on the side of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Powers Central Powers], in which it took part in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Eastern_theatre_of_World_War_I Middle Eastern theatre]. There were several important Ottoman victories in the early years of the war, such as the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gallipoli Battle of Gallipoli] and the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Kut Siege of Kut], but there were setbacks as well, such as the disastrous [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus_Campaign Caucasus Campaign] against the Russians. The United States never declared war against the Ottoman Empire.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-110" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-110 [105]]</sup></p>
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ottoman_Empire_1914_h.PNG][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ottoman_Empire_1914_h.PNG]The Ottoman Empire in 1914, including nominal and vassal Ottoman territories.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Osmanli_Imparatorlugu_1300-1923.gif][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Osmanli_Imparatorlugu_1300-1923.gif]The expansion and collapse of the Ottoman Empire (click on the picture.)<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">In 1915, as the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Caucasus_Army_(World_War_I) Russian Caucasus Army] continued to advance in eastern Anatolia with the help of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_volunteer_units Armenian volunteer units] from the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus Caucasus] region of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire Russian Empire],<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ArmenianMassacresBritannica_111-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-ArmenianMassacresBritannica-111 [106]]</sup>and aided by some [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_militia Ottoman Armenians], the Ottoman government decided to issue the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehcir_Law Tehcir Law], which started the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation deportation] of the ethnic Armenians, particularly from the provinces close to the Ottoman-Russian front, resulting in what became known as the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_Genocide Armenian Genocide].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-112" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-112 [107]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-113" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-113 [108]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-114" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-114 [109]]</sup> Through forced marches and massacres, the Armenians living in eastern Anatolia were uprooted from their ancestral homelands and sent southwards to the Ottoman provinces in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria Syria] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia Mesopotamia]. Estimates vary on how many Armenians perished during the Armenian Genocide but scholars give figures ranging from 300,000 (per the modern Turkish state), 600,000 (per early estimates by Western researchers)<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-115" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-115 [110]]</sup> to up to 1.0 million to up to 1.5 million (per modern Western and Armenian scholars).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-116" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-116 [111]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-117" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-117 [112]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-118" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-118 [113]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-119" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-119 [114]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-120" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-120 [115]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-121" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-121 [116]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_Revolt Arab Revolt] which began in 1916 turned the tide against the Ottomans at the Middle Eastern front, where they initially seemed to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war. When the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_of_Mudros Armistice of Mudros] was signed on October 30, 1918, the only parts of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_peninsula Arabian peninsula] that were still under Ottoman control were [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemen Yemen], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asir Asir], the city of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medina Medina], portions of northern [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria Syria] and portions of northern [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq Iraq]. These territories were handed over to the British forces on 23 January 1919. The Ottomans were also ordered to evacuate the parts of the former Russian Empire in the Caucasus (in present-day [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country) Georgia], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenia Armenia] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan Azerbaijan]), which they had gained towards the end of World War I, following Russia's retreat from the war with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Revolution_(1917) Russian Revolution] in 1917.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Under the terms of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres Treaty of Sèvres], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partitioning_of_the_Ottoman_Empire partitioning of the Ottoman Empire] was solidified. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ottoman_Empire_dominated_territories new countries created] from the former territories of the Ottoman Empire currently number 39.</p>
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| ====Turkish War of Independence (1919–1922)====
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_Constantinople occupation of Constantinople] along with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_%C4%B0zmir occupation of İzmir] mobilized the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Establishment_of_the_Turkish_national_movement establishment of the Turkish national movement], which won the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence Turkish War of Independence] (1919–22) under the leadership of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Pasha Mustafa Kemal Pasha].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-122" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-122 [117]]</sup> The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultanate Sultanate] was abolished on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed_VI Mehmed VI Vahdettin](reigned 1918–22), left the country on 17 November 1922. The new independent [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_National_Assembly_of_Turkey Grand National Assembly of Turkey] (GNA) was internationally recognized with the Treaty of Lausanne on 24 July 1923. The GNA officially declared the Republic of Turkey on 29 October 1923. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate Caliphate] was constitutionally abolished several months later, on 3 March 1924. The Sultan and his family were declared [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/150_personae_non_gratae_of_Turkey personae non gratae of Turkey] and exiled.</p>
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sultanvahideddin.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sultanvahideddin.jpg]Departure of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed_VI Mehmed VI], last Sultan of the Ottoman State, 1922.====Ottoman descendants during and after the exile====
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_of_succession_to_the_Ottoman_throne Line of succession to the Ottoman throne]<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">In 1974, descendants of the dynasty were granted the right to acquire Turkish citizenship by the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_National_Assembly Grand National Assembly], and were notified that they could apply.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed_Orhan Mehmed Orhan], son of Prince Mehmed Abdul Kadir of the Ottoman Empire, died in 1994, leaving the grandson of Ottoman Sultan [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd%C3%BClhamid_II Abdülhamid II], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ertu%C4%9Frul_Osman Ertuğrul Osman], as the eldest surviving member of the deposed dynasty. Osman for many years refused to carry a Turkish passport, calling himself a citizen of the Ottoman Empire. Despite this attitude, he put the matter of an Ottoman restoration to rest when he told an interviewer "no" to the question of whether he wished the Ottoman Empire to be restored. He was quoted as saying that "democracy works well in Turkey."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-123" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-123 [118]]</sup> He returned to Turkey in 1992 for the first time since the exile, and became a Turkish citizen with a Turkish passport in 2002.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-124" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-124 [119]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">On 23 September 2009, Osman died at the age of 97 in Istanbul, and with his death the last of the line born under the Ottoman Empire was extinguished. In Turkey, Osman was known as "the last Ottoman".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-125" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-125 [120]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayezid_Osman Bayezid Osman], the second son of Sultan [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd%C3%BClmecid_I Abdülmecid I]'s younger grandson, Ibrahim Tevfik, is now the current eldest surviving member of the former ruling dynasty.</p>
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| ==Fall of the Empire==
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| Main article: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Ottoman_Empire Fall of the Ottoman Empire]<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">In many ways, the circumstances surrounding the Ottoman Empire's fall closely paralleled those surrounding the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire decline of the Roman Empire], particularly in the ongoing tensions between the Empire's different ethnic groups, and the various governments' inability to deal with these tensions. In the case of the Ottomans, the introduction of increased [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_rights cultural rights], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_liberties civil liberties] and a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliamentary_system parliamentary system] during the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanzimat Tanzimat] proved too late to reverse the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_under_the_Ottoman_Empire nationalistic] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secession secessionist] trends that had already been set in motion since the early 19th century.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap; ">[''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed citation needed]'']</sup></p>
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| ==Economy==
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| Main article: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Ottoman_Empire Economic history of the Ottoman Empire]
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| {| align="right" style="font-size: 13px; "
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| {| cellspacing="0" class="navbox" style="font-size: 11px; background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); width: 280px; margin-top: 0em; margin-right: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; margin-left: 1em; clear: both; text-align: center; padding-top: 1px; padding-right: 1px; padding-bottom: 1px; padding-left: 1px; float: right; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "
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| {| cellspacing="0" class="nowraplinks" style="font-size: 11px; width: 272px; background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; color: inherit; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "
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| ! class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="text-align: center; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em; background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 255); background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "|<span style="font-size: 12px; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Ottoman_Empire Economic History] </span><span style="font-size: 12px; ">of the Ottoman Empire </span>
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| | class="navbox-list navbox-odd" colspan="2" style="border-top-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-right-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-bottom-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-left-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; width: 230px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socioeconomics_of_Enlargement_Era_(Ottoman_Empire) Enlargement Era] •[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socioeconomics_of_Reformation_Era Reformation Era]
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| | rowspan="1" style="width: 40px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 2px; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Osmanli-nisani.svg]
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| {| cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks" style="font-size: 11px; float: right; clear: right; color: black; background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); width: 22em; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 0.4em; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 0px; text-align: center; line-height: 1.4em; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "
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| ! style="padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.4em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.4em; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.2em; font-weight: bold; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxation_in_the_Ottoman_empire Taxation] in theOttoman Empire
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| | style="padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.4em; padding-left: 0px; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Osmanli-nisani.svg]
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| | style="padding-top: 0.4em; font-weight: bold; "|Taxes
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| | style="padding-bottom: 0.2em; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adet-i_A%C4%9Fnam Adet-i Ağnam]
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| <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adet-i_de%C5%9Ftbani Adet-i deştbani]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashar Ashar]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avar%C4%B1z Avarız]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bac-i_pazar&action=edit&redlink=1 Bac-i pazar]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedl-i_askeri Bedl-i askeri]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cizye Cizye]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=C%C3%BCrm-%C3%BC_cinayet&action=edit&redlink=1 Cürm-ü cinayet]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damga_resmi Damga resmi]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BCmr%C3%BCk_resmi Gümrük resmi]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hara%C3%A7 Haraç]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ihtisab Ihtisab]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0spen%C3%A7e İspençe]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Istira&action=edit&redlink=1 Istira]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maktu&action=edit&redlink=1 Maktu]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mururiye_resmi&action=edit&redlink=1 Mururiye resmi]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muskirat_resmi Muskirat resmi]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCz%C3%BCl Nüzül]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otlak_resmi Otlak resmi]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rav_ak%C3%A7esi Rav akçesi]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resm-i_arusane Resm-i arusane]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resm-i_benn%C3%A2k Resm-i bennâk]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Resm-i_bostan&action=edit&redlink=1 Resm-i bostan]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resm-i_%C3%A7ift Resm-i çift]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resm-i_d%C3%B6n%C3%BCm Resm-i dönüm]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Resm-i_ganem&action=edit&redlink=1 Resm-i ganem]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resm-i_h%C4%B1nz%C4%B1r Resm-i hınzır]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resm-i_m%C3%BCcerred Resm-i mücerred]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resm-i_sicill Resm-i sicill]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusum-e-eflak Rusum-e-eflak]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Selamet_isni&action=edit&redlink=1 Selamet isni]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapu_resmi Tapu resmi]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekalif-i_orfiye Tekalif-i orfiye]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temettu Temettu]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuz_resmi Tuz resmi]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zak%C4%81t Zakāt]
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| | style="padding-top: 0.2em; font-weight: bold; "|Implementation
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| | style="padding-bottom: 0.2em; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahidn%C3%A2me Ahidnâme]
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| <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defter Defter]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=D%C3%BCyun-%C4%B1_Umumiye&action=edit&redlink=1 Düyun-ı Umumiye]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emin_(Ottoman_official) Emin]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hazine-i_Hassa&action=edit&redlink=1 Hazine-i Hassa]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hane_(household)&action=edit&redlink=1 Hane]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iltizam Iltizam]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Istira&action=edit&redlink=1 Istira]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kad%C4%B1 Kadı]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kanun-i_Raya&action=edit&redlink=1 Kanun-i Raya]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kanunname&action=edit&redlink=1 Kanunname]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Malikane&action=edit&redlink=1 Malikane]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire) Millet]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muafiyet Muafiyet]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muhassil&action=edit&redlink=1 Muhassil]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muqata%27ah Muqata'ah]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Public_Debt_Administration Ottoman Public Debt Administration]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regie_Company Regie Company]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sursat Sursat]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tahrir_(tax_survey)&action=edit&redlink=1 Tahrir]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waqf Waqf]
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| | style="text-align: right; font-size: 13px; "|<span class="noprint plainlinks navbar" style="display: inline; font-size: 11px; font-weight: normal; padding-right: 0.25em; word-spacing: -0.125em; "><span style="white-space: nowrap; word-spacing: -0.12em; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Taxation_in_the_Ottoman_Empire_sidebar v] '''·''' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Taxation_in_the_Ottoman_Empire_sidebar d] '''·''' [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Taxation_in_the_Ottoman_Empire_sidebar&action=edit e]</span></span>
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bankalar_Caddesi.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bankalar_Caddesi.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bankalar_Caddesi Bankalar Caddesi] (Banks Street) in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galata Galata] was the financial center of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Central Bank is the first building at right.<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne (Adrianople) and Constantinople, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centres, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-inalcikstudies209_126-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-inalcikstudies209-126 [121]]</sup> To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews from different parts of Europe, who were settled in Constantinople and other port cities like Salonica. In many places in Europe, Jews were suffering persecution at the hands of their Christian counterparts. The tolerance displayed by the Ottomans was welcomed by the immigrants. The Ottoman economic mind was closely related to the basic concepts of state and society in the Middle East in which the ultimate goal of a state was consolidation and extension of the ruler's power, and the way to reach it was to get rich resources of revenues by making the productive classes prosperous.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-inalcikstudies217_127-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-inalcikstudies217-127 [122]]</sup> The ultimate aim was to increase the state revenues without damaging the prosperity of subjects to prevent the emergence of social disorder and to keep the traditional organization of the society intact.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The organization of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organization among all their contemporaries.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Black_p199_128-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Black_p199-128 [123]]</sup> This organization developed a scribal bureaucracy (known as "men of the pen") as a distinct group, partly highly trained ulema, which developed into a professional body.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Black_p199_128-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Black_p199-128 [123]]</sup> The effectiveness of this professional financial body stands behind the success of many great Ottoman statesmen.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-129" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-129 [124]]</sup> The economic structure of the Empire was defined by its geopolitical structure. The Ottoman Empire stood between the West and the East, thus blocking the land route eastward and forcing Spanish and Portuguese navigators to set sail in search of a new route to the Orient. The Empire controlled the spice route that [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco_Polo Marco Polo] once used. When [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama Vasco da Gama] bypassed Ottoman controlled routes and established direct trade links with India in 1498, and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Columbus Christopher Columbus] first journeyed to the Bahamas in 1492, the Ottoman Empire was at its zenith, an economic power that extended over three continents. Modern Ottoman studies think that the change in relations between the Ottomans and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in the significance of the land routes to the East as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and Mediterranean as parallel to the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Ottoman_Treaty Anglo-Ottoman Treaty], also known as the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Balta_Liman Treaty of Balta Liman] that opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors, would be seen as one of the staging posts along this development.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">By developing commercial centres and routes, encouraging people to extend the area of cultivated land in the country and international trade through its dominions, the state performed basic economic functions in the Empire. But in all this the financial and political interests of the state were dominant. Within the social and political system they were living in Ottoman administrators could not have comprehended or seen the desirability of the dynamics and principles of the capitalist and mercantile economies developing in Western Europe.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-inalcikstudies218_130-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-inalcikstudies218-130 [125]]</sup></p>
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| ==State==
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| Main article: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_organisation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire State organisation of the Ottoman Empire]
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| {| cellspacing="0" class="navbox" style="font-size: 11px; background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); width: 280px; margin-top: 0em; margin-right: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; margin-left: 1em; clear: both; text-align: center; padding-top: 1px; padding-right: 1px; padding-bottom: 1px; padding-left: 1px; float: right; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "
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| {| cellspacing="0" class="nowraplinks" style="font-size: 11px; width: 272px; background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; color: inherit; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "
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| ! class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="text-align: center; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em; background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 255); background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "|<span style="font-size: 12px; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_organisation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire State organisation] of<br />the Ottoman Empire</span>
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| | class="navbox-list navbox-odd" colspan="2" style="border-top-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-right-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-bottom-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-left-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; width: 230px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Osman House of Osman] ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Dynasty Ottoman Dynasty])
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| | rowspan="5" style="width: 40px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 2px; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Osmanli-nisani.svg]
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| | class="navbox-list navbox-even" colspan="2" style="border-top-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-right-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-bottom-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-left-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: rgb(247, 247, 247); width: 230px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "|Classic Period: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divan Divan] ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Porte Porte]) •[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Vizier Grand Vizier]Constitutional Period: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Government_(Ottoman_Empire) Imperial Government]
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| | class="navbox-list navbox-odd" colspan="2" style="border-top-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-right-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-bottom-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-left-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; width: 230px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire) Millets] •[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subdivisions_of_the_Ottoman_Empire Subdivisions] •[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassal_and_tributary_states_of_the_Ottoman_Empire Vassal & tributary states]
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pera_Museum_2.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pera_Museum_2.jpg]Ambassadors at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topkap%C4%B1_Palace Topkapı Palace]<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_organisation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire state organisation of the Ottoman Empire] was a very simple system that had two main dimensions: the military administration and the civil administration. The Sultan was the highest position in the system. The civil system was based on local administrative units based on the region's characteristics. The Ottomans practiced a system in which the state (as in the Byzantine Empire) had control over the clergy. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran Iran] remained important in Ottoman administrative circles.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-131" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-131 [126]]</sup> According to Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders within the overarching context of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni orthodox] Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Kapucu_132-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Kapucu-132 [127]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The "[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_dynasty Ottoman dynasty]" or, as an institution, "[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Osman House of Osman]" was unprecedented and unequaled in the Islamic world for its size and duration.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-133" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-133 [128]]</sup> The Ottoman dynasty was ethnically Turkish in its origins, as were some of its supporters and subjects, however the dynasty immediately lost this "[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkic_peoples Turkic]" identification through intermarriage with different ethnicities.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Donald_134-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Donald-134 [129]]</sup> On eleven occasions, the sultan was deposed because he was perceived by his enemies as a threat to the state. There were only two attempts in Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Osmanlı dynasty, both failures, which suggests a political system that for an extended period was able to manage its revolutions without unnecessary instability.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Kapucu_132-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Kapucu-132 [127]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The highest position in Islam, ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate caliphate]'', was claimed by the sultan, which was established as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate Ottoman Caliphate]. The Ottoman sultan, ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padishah pâdişâh]'' or "lord of kings", served as the Empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Harem Imperial Harem] was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valide_Sultan Valide Sultan]. On occasion, the Valide Sultan would become involved in state politics. For a time, the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the "[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultanate_of_the_women Sultanate of Women]". New sultans were always chosen from the sons of the previous sultan. The strong educational system of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_school palace school] was geared towards eliminating the unfit potential heirs, and establishing support among the ruling elite for a successor. The palace schools, which would also educate the future administrators of the state, were not a single track. First, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrasa Madrasa] ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_language Ottoman Turkish]: ''Medrese'') was designated for the Muslims, and educated scholars and state officials according to Islamic tradition. The financial burden of the Medrese was supported by vakifs, allowing children of poor families to move to higher social levels and income.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-135" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-135 [130]]</sup> The second track was a free[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boarding_school boarding school] for the Christians, the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ender%C3%BBn Enderûn]'',<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-136" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-136 [131]]</sup> which recruited 3,000 students annually from Christian boys between eight and twenty years old from one in forty families among the communities settled in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumelia Rumelia] and/or the Balkans, a process known as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devshirme_in_the_Ottoman_Palace_School Devshirme] (''Devşirme'').<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-137" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-137 [132]]</sup></p>
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thomas_allom,_c1840,_The_Enterance_to_Divan.png][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thomas_allom,_c1840,_The_Enterance_to_Divan.png]''Bâb-ı Âlî'', the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Porte Sublime Porte]<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, the sultan's political and executive authority was delegated. The politics of the state had a number of advisors and ministers gathered around a council known as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divan Divan] (after the 17th century it was renamed the "[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Porte Porte]"). The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a ''Beylik'', was composed of the elders of the tribe. Its composition was later modified to include military officers and local elites (such as religious and political advisors). Later still, beginning in 1320, a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Vizier Grand Vizier] was appointed to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. The Grand Vizier had considerable independence from the sultan with almost unlimited powers of appointment, dismissal and supervision. Beginning with the late 16th century, sultans withdrew from politics and the Grand Vizier became the ''de facto'' head of state.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Black_p199_128-2" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Black_p199-128 [123]]</sup></p>
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tughra_Suleiman.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tughra_Suleiman.jpg]Tughra of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent Suleiman the Magnificent](1520)<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Throughout Ottoman history, there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy. The sultan no longer had executive powers. A parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces. The representatives formed the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Government_of_the_Ottoman_Empire Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire].</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The rapidly expanding empire used loyal, skilled subjects to manage the Empire, whether [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanians Albanians], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phanariotes Phanariot Greeks], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenians Armenians], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbs Serbs], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarians Hungarians] or others. The incorporation of Greeks (and other Christians), Muslims, and Jews revolutionized its administrative system.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-138" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-138 [133]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">This eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the Empire, which was initially undertaken in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language Greek language] to the west.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Donald_134-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Donald-134 [129]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tughra Tughra] were calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35. Carved on the Sultan's seal, they bore the names of the Sultan and his father. The statement and prayer, “ever victorious,” was also present in most. The earliest belonged to Orhan Gazi. The ornately stylized ''Tughra'' spawned a branch of Ottoman-Turkish [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calligraphy calligraphy].</p>
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| ==Society==
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| {| cellspacing="0" class="navbox" style="font-size: 11px; background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); width: 280px; margin-top: 0em; margin-right: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; margin-left: 1em; clear: both; text-align: center; padding-top: 1px; padding-right: 1px; padding-bottom: 1px; padding-left: 1px; float: right; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "
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| | style="padding-top: 2px; padding-right: 2px; padding-bottom: 2px; padding-left: 2px; "|
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| {| cellspacing="0" class="nowraplinks" style="font-size: 11px; width: 272px; background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; color: inherit; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "
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| ! class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="text-align: center; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em; background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 255); background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "|<span style="font-size: 12px; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_structure_of_the_Ottoman_Empire Social structure of the] </span><span style="font-size: 12px; ">Ottoman Empire </span>
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| | class="navbox-list navbox-odd" colspan="2" style="border-top-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-right-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-bottom-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-left-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; width: 225px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire) Millets]: ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Turkey Jews] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenians_in_the_Ottoman_Empire Armenians] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Greeks Greeks])
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| | rowspan="5" style="width: 45px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 2px; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Osmanli-nisani.svg]
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| | class="navbox-list navbox-even" colspan="2" style="border-top-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-right-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-bottom-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-left-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: rgb(247, 247, 247); width: 225px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_under_the_Ottoman_Empire Rise of nationalism] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottomanism Ottomanism]
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| | class="navbox-list navbox-odd" colspan="2" style="border-top-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-right-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-bottom-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-left-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; width: 225px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifestyle_of_the_Ottoman_Empire Lifestyle] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_court Ottoman court] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire Slavery] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dev%C5%9Firme Devşirme]
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">One of the successes of the social structure of the Ottoman Empire was the unity that it caused among its highly varied populations through an organization called millets. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire) millets] were the major religious groups that were allowed to establish their own communities under Ottoman rule. The Millets were established by retaining their own religious laws, traditions, and language under the general protection of the sultan. Plurality was the key to the longevity of the Empire. As early as the reign of Mehmed II, extensive rights were granted to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phanariotes Phanariot Greeks], and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Turkey Jews] were invited to settle in Ottoman territory. Ultimately, the Ottoman Empire's relatively high degree of tolerance for ethnic differences were one of its greatest strengths in integrating the new regions but this non-assimilative policy became a weakness after the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_under_the_Ottoman_Empire rise of nationalism]. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire dissolution of the Empire] based on ethnic differentiation ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkanization balkanization]) brought the end, which the failed[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottomanism Ottomanism] among the citizens and participatory politics of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Constitutional_Era_(Ottoman_Empire) first] or the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Constitutional_Era_(Ottoman_Empire) constitutional Era] had successfully addressed.</p>
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Meddah_story_teller.png][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Meddah_story_teller.png]Story teller at a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coffeehouse coffeehouse].<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifestyle_of_the_Ottoman_Empire lifestyle of the Ottoman Empire] was a mixture of western and eastern life. One unique characteristic of Ottoman life style was it was very fragmented. The millet concept generated this fragmentation and enabled many to coexist in a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaic mosaic] of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultures cultures]. The capital of the Ottoman Empire, Constantinople also had a unique culture, mainly because before Ottoman rule it had been the seat of both the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire Roman] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine Byzantine] Empires. The lifestyle in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_court Ottoman court] in many aspects assembled ancient traditions of the Persian [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah Shahs], but had many [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks Greek] and European influences. The culture that evolved around the Ottoman court was known as the Ottoman Way, which was epitomized with the Topkapı Palace. There were also large metropolitan centers where the Ottoman influence expressed itself with a diversity similar to metropolises of today: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarajevo Sarajevo], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skopje Skopje],[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessaloniki Thessaloniki], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimashq Dimashq], Baghdad, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beirut Beirut], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem Jerusalem], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makkah Makkah] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algiers Algiers] with their own small versions of Ottoman Provincial Administration replicating the culture of the Ottoman court locally. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seraglio seraglio], which were the non-imperial places, in the context of the Turkish fashion, became the subject of works of art, where non-imperial prince or referring to other grand houses built around courtyards.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_(Ottoman_Empire) Slavery in the Ottoman Empire] was a part of Ottoman society.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-139" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-139 [134]]</sup> As late as 1908 women slaves were still sold in the Empire.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-140" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-140 [135]]</sup> During the 19th century the Empire came under pressure from Western European countries to outlaw the practice. Policies developed by various Sultans throughout the 19th century attempted to curtail the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slave_trade slave trade]but, since slavery did have centuries of religious backing and sanction, they could never directly abolish the institution outright—as had gradually happened in Western Europe and the Americas.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plague_(disease) Plague] remained a major event in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century. Between 1701 and 1750, 37 larger and smaller plague epidemics were recorded in Constantinople, and 31 between 1751 and 1800.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-141" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-141 [136]]</sup></p>
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| See also: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devshirmeh Devshirmeh]==Culture==
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| {| cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks" style="font-size: 11px; float: right; clear: right; color: black; background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: rgb(249, 249, 249); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); width: 22em; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 0.4em; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 0px; text-align: center; line-height: 1.4em; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "
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| ! style="padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.4em; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.4em; font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.2em; font-weight: bold; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_the_Ottoman_Empire Culture of the]
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| Ottoman Empire
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| | style="padding-top: 0.2em; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.4em; padding-left: 0px; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Osmanli-nisani.svg]
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| | style="padding-top: 0.4em; font-weight: bold; "|Visual Arts
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| | style="padding-bottom: 0.2em; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_architecture Architecture]
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| <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_miniature Miniature]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0znik_pottery Pottery]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy Calligraphy]
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| | style="padding-top: 0.2em; font-weight: bold; "|Performing Arts
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| | style="padding-bottom: 0.2em; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karag%C3%B6z_and_Hacivat Shadowplay]
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| <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_the_Ottoman_Empire#Meddah_.28one_person_show.29 Meddah]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_the_Ottoman_Empire#Dance Dance]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_classical_music Music]
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| | style="padding-top: 0.2em; font-weight: bold; "|Languages and literature
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| | style="padding-bottom: 0.2em; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_language Ottoman Turkish]
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| <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_poetry Poetry]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prose_of_the_Ottoman_Empire Prose]
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| | style="padding-bottom: 0.2em; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_wrestling Oil wrestling]
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| <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_archery Archery]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jereed Cirit]
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| | style="padding-top: 0.2em; font-weight: bold; "|Other
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| | style="padding-bottom: 0.2em; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_cuisine Cuisine]
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| <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_carpet Carpets]<span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_clothing Clothing]
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The Ottoman Empire had filled roughly the territories around the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea Mediterranean Sea] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea Black Sea] while adopting the traditions, art and institutions of cultures in these regions and adding new dimensions to them. Many different cultures lived under the umbrella of the Ottoman Empire, and as a result, a specifically "Ottoman" culture can be difficult to define, except for those of the regional centers and capital. However, there was also a specific melding of cultures that can be said to have reached its highest levels among the Ottoman elite, who were composed of myriad ethnic and religious groups. This multicultural perspective of "[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire) millets]" was reflected in the Ottoman State's multi-cultural and multi-religious policies. As the Ottomans moved further west, the Ottoman leaders absorbed some of the culture of the conquered regions. Intercultural [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage marriages] also played their part in creating the characteristic Ottoman elite culture. When compared to the Turkish folk culture, the influence of these new cultures in creating the culture of the Ottoman elite was clear.</p>
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Edirne_7333_Nevit.JPG][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Edirne_7333_Nevit.JPG][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selimiye_Mosque_(Edirne) Selimiye Mosque] was the masterpiece of[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimar_Sinan Mimar Sinan], chief architect of Sultans [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selim_I Selim I],[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent Suleiman the Magnificent], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selim_II Selim II] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murad_III Murad III].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Safranbolu_traditional_houses.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Safranbolu_traditional_houses.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safranbolu Safranbolu] was inscribed as a[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site UNESCO World Heritage Site] in 1994 due to its well-preserved Ottoman residential architecture.<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">"[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_architecture Ottoman architecture]" was influenced by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Architecture Persian], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_architecture Byzantine Greek] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_architecture Islamic] architectures. The Ottoman architecture are a continuation of the pre-Islamic [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sassanid_architecture Sassanid architecture]. For instance, the dome covered square, which had been a dominant form in Sassanid became the nucleus of all Ottoman architecture.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-142" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-142 [137]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-143" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-143 [138]]</sup> During the[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire Rise period] the early or first Ottoman architecture period, Ottoman art was in search of new ideas. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_of_the_Ottoman_Empire growth period] of the Empire become the classical period of architecture, when Ottoman art was at its most confident. During the years of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stagnation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire Stagnation period], Ottoman architecture moved away from this style, however.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">During the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulip_Era_in_the_Ottoman_Empire Tulip Era], it was under the influence of the highly ornamented styles of Western Europe; [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque Baroque], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rococo Rococo], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_(style) Empire] and other styles intermingled. Concepts of Ottoman architecture mainly circle the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosque#Architecture mosque]. The mosque was integral to society, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_planning city planning] and communal life. Besides the mosque, it is also possible to find good examples of Ottoman architecture in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soup_kitchen soup kitchens], theological schools, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospitals hospitals], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_bath Turkish baths] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb tombs]. Examples of Ottoman architecture of the classical period, besides Istanbul and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edirne Edirne], can also be seen in Egypt, Eritrea, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans and Hungary, where mosques, bridges, fountains and schools were built. The art of Ottoman decoration developed with a multitude of influences due to the wide ethnic range of the Ottoman Empire. The greatest of the court artists enriched the Ottoman Empire with many pluralistic artistic influences: such as mixing traditional [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_art Byzantine art] with elements of[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_art Chinese art].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-144" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-144 [139]]</sup></p>
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gate_of_Salutation_Topkapi_Istanbul_2007_Pano.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gate_of_Salutation_Topkapi_Istanbul_2007_Pano.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topkap%C4%B1_Palace Topkapı Palace] was the official and primary residence of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Sultans Ottoman Sultans]from 1465 to 1856, the year when Sultan[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd%C3%BClmecid_I Abdülmecid I] moved to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolmabah%C3%A7e_Palace Dolmabahçe Palace].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Surname_171b.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Surname_171b.jpg]Ottoman miniature painting from the "Surname-i Vehbi" showing the music band of the Janissaries, called the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehteran Mehteran].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Iznik_pottery_with_foliate_rim_16th_century.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Iznik_pottery_with_foliate_rim_16th_century.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iznik_pottery Iznik pottery] with foliate rim, 16th century.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_and_Islamic_Arts_Museum Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Duloz9.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Duloz9.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_and_crescent Star and crescent] on 1865 Ottoman [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postage_stamp postage stamp]<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">"[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_classical_music Ottoman classical music]" was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite, a number of the Ottoman sultans were accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selim_III Selim III], whose compositions are often still performed today. Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_music Byzantine music], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_music Arabic music], and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_traditional_music Persian music]. Compositionally, it is organised around [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm rhythmic] units called [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usul_(music) usul], which are somewhat similar to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metre_(music) meter] in Western music, and[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melody melodic] units called [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makam makam], which bear some resemblance to Western [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_mode musical modes].</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_instrument instruments] used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baglama saz], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baglama bağlama], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemenche kemence]), other Middle Eastern instruments (the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oud ud], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanbur tanbur], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qan%C3%BAn kanun], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ney ney]), and—later in the tradition—Western instruments (the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violin violin]and the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano piano]). Because of a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music, and folk music. In the provinces, several different kinds of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_music folk music] were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are: Balkan-Thracian Türküs, North-Eastern ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laz_people Laz]) Türküs, Aegean Türküs, Central Anatolian Türküs, Eastern Anatolian Türküs, and Caucasian Türküs. Some of the distinctive styles were: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_military_band Janissary Music],[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_music Roma music], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belly_dance Belly dance], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_folk_music Turkish folk music].</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">"[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_cuisine Ottoman cuisine]" refers to the cuisine of the capital—[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople Constantinople], and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that all the populations enjoyed. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the Empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramadan Ramadan] events, and through the cooking at the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yal%C4%B1 Yalıs] of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasha Pashas], and from there on spread to the rest of the population. Today, Ottoman cuisine lives in the Balkans, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia Anatolia] and the Middle East, "common heirs to what was once the Ottoman life-style, and their cuisines offer treacherous circumstantial evidence of this fact".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Fragner_145-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Fragner-145 [140]]</sup> It is typical of any great cuisine in the world to be based on local varieties and on mutual exchange and enrichment among them, but at the same time to be homogenized and harmonized by a metropolitan tradition of refined taste.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Fragner_145-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Fragner-145 [140]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Numerous traditions and cultural traits of this previous empire (in fields such as architecture, cuisine, music, leisure and government) were adopted by the Ottomans, who elaborated them into new forms and blended them with the characteristics of the ethnic and religious groups living within the Ottoman territories, which resulted in a new and distinctively Ottoman cultural identity.</p>
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| ==Demographics==
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| Main article: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Ottoman_Empire Demographics of the Ottoman Empire]<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The exact population of the Ottoman Empire is a matter of much debate, due to the scantness and ambiguous nature of the primary sources. Figures from 1831 onwards are available as official census results, but the censuses did not cover the whole population. For example, the 1831 census only counted men and did not cover the whole empire.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Kinross281_58-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Kinross281-58 [53]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Kabaday.C4.B1_146-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Kabaday.C4.B1-146 [141]]</sup></p>
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| ===Language===
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| See also: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish_language Ottoman Turkish language]<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Ottoman Turkish was a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkic_languages Turkic language] highly influenced by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language Persian] and Arabic. The Ottomans had three influential languages: Turkish, spoken by the majority of the people in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia Anatolia] and by the majority of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslims Muslims] of the Balkans except in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albania Albania] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia Bosnia]; [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language Persian], only spoken by the educated;<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Bertold_Spuler_page_69_147-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Bertold_Spuler_page_69-147 [142]]</sup> and Arabic, spoken mainly in[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabia Arabia], North Africa, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq Iraq], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait Kuwait] and the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levant Levant]. Throughout the vast Ottoman bureaucracy Ottoman Turkish language was the official language, a version of Turkish, albeit with a vast mixture of both Arabic and Persian grammar and vocabulary. If the basic grammar was still largely Turkish, the inclusion of almost any word in Arabic or Persian in Ottoman made it a language that was essentially incomprehensible to any ethnic [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_people Turkish] Ottoman subject who had not mastered Arabic, Persian or both.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Because of a low literacy rate among the public (about 2–3% until the early 19th century and just about 15% at the end of 19th century), ordinary people had to hire special "request-writers" (''arzuhâlci''s) to be able to communicate with the government.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-148" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-148 [143]]</sup> The ethnic groups continued to speak within their families and neighborhoods ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahalle mahalles]) with their own languages (e.g., Jews, Greeks, Armenians, etc.) In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants would often speak each other's language. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages, many non ethnic [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turks Turks] spoke Turkish as a second language. Educated Ottoman Turks spoke [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic Arabic] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language Persian]. In the last two centuries, French and English emerged as popular languages, especially among the Christian [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Levantines Levantine] communities. The elite learned French at school, and used European products as a fashion statement. The use of Turkish grew steadily under the Ottomans, but, since they were still interested in their two other official<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap; ">[''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed citation needed]'']</sup> languages, they kept these in use as well. Usage of these became limited, though, and specific: Persian served mainly as a literary language for the educated,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Bertold_Spuler_page_69_147-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Bertold_Spuler_page_69-147 [142]]</sup> while [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic Arabic] was used for religious rites.</p>
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| ===Religion===
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| Please [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ottoman_Empire&action=edit improve the article] or discuss the issue on the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Ottoman_Empire talk page].''(November 2010)''
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| Further information: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire Christianity and Judaism in the Ottoman Empire][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tile_with_Calligraphy.JPG][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tile_with_Calligraphy.JPG][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calligraphic Calligraphic] writing on a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritware fritware] tile, depicting the names of God, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad Muhammad]and the first [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate caliphs]. c. 1727, Islamic Middle East Gallery, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_%26_Albert_Museum Victoria & Albert Museum].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-149" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-149 [144]]</sup><p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Before adopting [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam Islam]—a process that was greatly facilitated by the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid Abbasid] victory at the 751 [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Talas Battle of Talas], which ensured Abbasid influence in Central Asia—the Turkic peoples practiced a variety of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism shamanism]. After this battle, many of the various Turkic tribes—including the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oghuz_Turks Oghuz Turks], who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans—gradually converted to Islam, and brought the religion with them to Anatolia beginning in the 11th century.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">In the Ottoman Empire, in accordance with the Muslim ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhimmi dhimmi]'' system, Christians were guaranteed limited freedoms (such as the right to worship), but were treated as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-class_citizen second-class citizens]. Christians and Jews were not considered equals to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim Muslims]: testimony against Muslims by Christians and Jews was inadmissible in courts of law. They were forbidden to carry weapons or ride atop horses, their houses could not overlook those of Muslims, and their religious practices would have to defer to those of Muslims, in addition to various other legal limitations.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-150" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-150 [145]]</sup> The system commonly known as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dev%C5%9Firme devşirme] ("blood tax") was effectively used in the Ottoman Empire for centuries: in this system a certain number Christian boys, mainly from the Balkans and Anatolia, were periodically conscripted before they reached adolescence and were brought up as Muslims.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-151" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-151 [146]]</sup> These selected boys were trained either in the arts of statecraft or in the military to form the ruling class and the elite fighting force, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janissaries Janissaries], of the empire.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The Ottoman Empire was, in principle, tolerant towards Christians and Jews (the "Ahl Al-Kitab", or "People of the Book", according to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qur%27an Qur'an]) but not towards the[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytheism polytheists], according to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sharia_law&action=edit&redlink=1 Sharia law]. Such tolerance was subject to a non-Muslim tax, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jizya Jizya].</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Under the ''millet'' system, non-Muslim people were considered subjects of the Empire, but were not subject to the Muslim faith or Muslim law. The Orthodox ''millet'', for instance, was still officially legally subject to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis Justinian's Code], which had been in effect in the Byzantine Empire for 900 years. Also, as the largest group of non-Muslim subjects (or ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhimmi zimmi]'') of the Islamic Ottoman state, the Orthodox ''millet'' was granted a number of special privileges in the fields of politics and commerce, and had to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-152" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-152 [147]]</sup><sup style="line-height: 1em; ">,</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-153" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-153 [148]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II allowed the local Christians to stay in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul Constantinople] after conquering the city in 1453, and to retain their institutions such as the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodox_Church_of_Constantinople Greek Orthodox Patriarchate].</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">In 1461 Sultan Mehmed II established the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_Patriarchate_of_Constantinople Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople]. Previously, the Byzantines considered the Armenian Church as heretical and thus did not allow them to build churches inside the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walls_of_Constantinople walls of Constantinople]. In 1492, when the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslims Muslims] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sephardic_Jews Sephardic Jews] were expelled from Spain during the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition Spanish Inquisition], the Ottoman Sultan [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayezid_II Bayezid II] sent his fleet under [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemal_Reis Kemal Reis] to save them and granted the refugees the right to settle in the Ottoman Empire.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The state's relationship with the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthodox_Church_of_Constantinople Greek Orthodox Church] was largely peaceful, and recurrent oppressive measures taken against the Greek church were a deviation from generally established practice. The church's structure was kept intact and largely left alone but under close control and scrutiny until the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence Greek War of Independence] of 1821–1829 and, later in the 19th century, the rise of the Ottoman [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy constitutional monarchy], which was driven to some extent by nationalistic currents, tried to be balanced with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottomanism Ottomanism]. Other Orthodox churches, like the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_Orthodox_Church Bulgarian Orthodox Church], were dissolved and placed under the jurisdiction of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate, until Sultan [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd%C3%BClaziz Abdülaziz] established the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_Exarchate Bulgarian Exarchate] in 1870 and reinstated the autonomy of the Bulgarian Church.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Similar ''millet''s were established for the Ottoman Jewish community, who were under the authority of the ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakham_Bashi Haham Başı]'' or Ottoman [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_rabbi Chief Rabbi]; the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church Armenian Orthodox] community, who were under the authority of a head bishop; and a number of other religious communities as well.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">In 1514, Sultan [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selim_I Selim I], nicknamed “the Grim” because of his cruelty, ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shi%27ism Shi'ites], whom he considered heretics,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-154" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-154 [149]]</sup> reportedly proclaiming that "the killing of one Shiite had as much otherworldly reward as killing 70 Christians."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-155" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-155 [150]]</sup></p>
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| ===The Ottoman Empire, Turkey, Iraq and Kurdistan===
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| ====Jews and Assyrian Christians forced migrations between 1843 and the 21st century====
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">In his recent PhD thesis <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-156" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-156 [151]]</sup> and in his recent book <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-157" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-157 [152]]</sup> the Israeli scholar Mordechai Zaken discussed the history of the Assyrian Christians of Turkey and Iraq (in the Kurdish vicinity) during the last 180 years, from 1843 onwards. In his studies Zaken outlines three major eruptions that took place between 1843 and 1933 during which the Assyrian Christians lost their land and hegemony in their habitat in the Hakkārī (or Julamerk) region in southeastern Turkey and became refugees in other lands, notably Iran and Iraq, and ultimately in exiled communities in European and western countries (the USA, Canada, Australia, New-Zealand, Sweden, France, to mention some of these countries). Mordechai Zaken wrote this important study from an analytical and comparative point of view, comparing the Assyrian Christians experience with the experience of the Kurdish Jews who had been dwelling in Kurdistan for two thousands years or so, but were forced to migrate the land to Israel in the early 1950s. The Jews of Kurdistan were forced to leave and migrate as a result of the Arab-Israeli war, as a result of the increasing hostility and acts of violence against Jews in Iraq and Kurdish towns and villages, and as a result of a new situation that had been built up during the 1940s in Iraq and Kurdistan in which the ability of Jews to live in relative comfort and relative tolerance (that was erupted from time to time prior to that period) with their Arab and Muslim neighbors, as they did for many years, practically came to an end. At the end, the Jews of Kurdistan had to leave their Kurdish habitat en masse and migrate into Israel. The Assyrian Christians on the other hand, came to similar conclusion but migrated in stages following each and every eruption of a political crisis with the regime in which boundaries they lived or following each conflict with their Muslim, Turkish, Arabs or Kurdish neighbors, or following the departure or expulsion of their patriarch Mar Shimon in 1933, first to Cyprus and then to the United States. Consequently, indeed there is still a small and fragile community of Assyrians in Iraq, however, millions of Assyrian Christians live today in exiled and prosperous communities in the west.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-158" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-158 [153]]</sup></p>
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| ==Law==
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| Further information: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecelle Mecelle][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1879-Ottoman_Court-from-NYL.png][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1879-Ottoman_Court-from-NYL.png]An Ottoman trial, 1877 (see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1879-Ottoman_Court-from-NYL.png image detail]for explanation)<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The Ottoman legal system accepted the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_law religious law] over its subjects. The Ottoman Empire was always organized around a system of local [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence jurisprudence]. Legal administration in the Ottoman Empire was part of a larger scheme of balancing central and local authority.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Benton_109-110_159-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Benton_109-110-159 [154]]</sup> Ottoman power revolved crucially around the administration of the rights to land, which gave a space for the local authority develop the needs of the local [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire) millet].<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Benton_109-110_159-1" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Benton_109-110-159 [154]]</sup> The jurisdictional complexity of the Ottoman Empire was aimed to permit the integration of culturally and religiously different groups.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Benton_109-110_159-2" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-Benton_109-110-159 [154]]</sup> The Ottoman system had three court systems: one for Muslims, one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious communities, and the "trade court". The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrative ''Kanun'', i.e. laws, a system based upon the Turkic ''Yasa'' and ''Töre'', which were developed in the pre-Islamic era. The ''kanun'' law system, on the other hand, was the secular law of the sultan, and dealt with issues not clearly addressed by the ''sharia'' system.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive: for instance, the Islamic courts—which were the Empire's primary courts—could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The Islamic ''Sharia'' law system had been developed from a combination of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qur%27an Qur'an]; the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith Hadīth], or words of the prophet[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad Muhammad]; ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijma ijmā']'', or consensus of the members of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ummah Muslim community]; [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiyas qiyas], a system of analogical reasoning from earlier precedents; and local customs. Both systems were taught at the Empire's law schools, which were in Constantinople and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bursa Bursa].</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">Tanzimat reforms drastically affected the law system. In 1877, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_law civil law] (except family law) was codified in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecelle Mecelle] code. Later codifications covered commercial law, penal law and civil procedure.</p>
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| ==Military==
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| {| cellspacing="0" class="navbox" style="font-size: 11px; background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-top-width: 1px; border-right-width: 1px; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-width: 1px; border-top-style: solid; border-right-style: solid; border-bottom-style: solid; border-left-style: solid; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); width: 280px; margin-top: 0em; margin-right: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; margin-left: 1em; clear: both; text-align: center; padding-top: 1px; padding-right: 1px; padding-bottom: 1px; padding-left: 1px; float: right; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "
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| {| cellspacing="0" class="nowraplinks" style="font-size: 11px; width: 272px; background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; color: inherit; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "
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| ! class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="text-align: center; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em; background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: rgb(183, 236, 144); background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "|<span style="font-size: 12px; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_the_Ottoman_Empire Military of the] </span><span style="font-size: 12px; ">Ottoman Empire </span>
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| | class="navbox-list navbox-odd" colspan="2" style="border-top-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-right-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-bottom-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-left-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; width: 230px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "|'''Army:''' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sipahi Sipahi] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ak%C4%B1nc%C4%B1 Akıncı] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timariot Timariot] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janissary Janissary] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizam-%C4%B1_Cedid Nizam-ı Cedid] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asakir-i_Mansure-i_Muhammediye Mansure Army] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Navy Navy]''' <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Air_Force Military aviation]
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| | rowspan="5" style="width: 40px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 2px; "|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Osmanli-nisani.svg]
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| | class="navbox-list navbox-even" colspan="2" style="border-top-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-right-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-bottom-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-left-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: rgb(247, 247, 247); width: 230px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "|'''Conflicts''': [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Europe European] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_the_Near_East Near East] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Ottoman_Wars Byzantine] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian%E2%80%93Ottoman_Wars Croatian] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars Austrian] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars Persian] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Ottoman_Wars_(disambiguation) Polish] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Russo-Turkish_wars Russian] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Serbian%E2%80%93Turkish_wars Serbian] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Venetian_Wars_(disambiguation) Venetian] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Portuguese_conflicts Portuguese] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ottoman_sieges_and_landings Sieges and landings] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_battles_involving_the_Ottoman_Empire Battles] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_conquered_by_the_Ottoman_Empire Cities conquered]
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| | class="navbox-list navbox-odd" colspan="2" style="border-top-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-right-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-bottom-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-left-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); background-image: initial; background-attachment: initial; background-origin: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: transparent; width: 230px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; "|'''See''': [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscription_in_the_Ottoman_Empire Conscription] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_military_reform_efforts Reform] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_naval_collaboration_treaties_signed_by_the_Ottoman_Empire Naval treaties] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_weapons Weapons] <span style="font-weight: bold; ">·</span> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ottoman_Kapudan_Pashas Kapudan Pashas]
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| Main article: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_the_Ottoman_Empire Military of the Ottoman Empire][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Welt-Galleria_T085.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Welt-Galleria_T085.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janissary Janissary][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sipahi3.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sipahi3.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sipahi Sipahi]<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The first military unit of the Ottoman State was an army that was organized by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osman_I Osman I] from the tribesmen inhabiting western Anatolia in the late 13th century. The military system became an intricate organization with the advance of the Empire. The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. The main corps of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Army Ottoman Army] included [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janissary Janissary],[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sipahi Sipahi], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akinci Akıncı] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_military_band Mehterân]. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to use muskets and cannons. The Ottomans began using ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falconet_(cannon) falcons]'', which were short but wide cannons, during the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(1422) Siege of Constantinople (1422)]. The Ottoman cavalry depended on high speed and mobility rather than heavy armour, using bows and short swords on fast [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkoman_horse Turkoman] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_horse Arabian] horses (progenitors of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoroughbred#Foundation_stallions Thoroughbred] racing horse),<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-160" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-160 [155]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-161" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-161 [156]]</sup> and often applied tactics similar to those of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_Empire Mongol Empire], such as pretending to retreat while surrounding the enemy forces inside a crescent-shaped formation and then making the real attack. The decline in the army's performance became clear from the mid-17th century and after the Great Turkish War. The 18th century saw some limited success against Venice, but in the north the European-style Russian armies forced the Ottomans to concede land.</p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The modernization of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century started with the military. In 1826 Sultan [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmud_II Mahmud II] abolished the Janissary corps and established the modern Ottoman army. He named them as the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizam-%C4%B1_Cedid Nizam-ı Cedid] (New Order). The Ottoman army was also the first institution to hire foreign experts and send its officers for training in western European countries. Consequently, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Turks Young Turks] movement began when these relatively young and newly trained men returned with their education.</p>
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ottoman_Navy_at_the_Golden_Horn.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ottoman_Navy_at_the_Golden_Horn.jpg]The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Navy Ottoman Navy] in 1914<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Navy Ottoman Navy] vastly contributed to the expansion of the Empire's territories on the European continent. It initiated the conquest of North Africa, with the addition of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria Algeria]and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt Egypt] to the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Starting with the loss of Algeria (1830) and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece Greece] (1821), Ottoman naval power and control over the Empire's distant overseas territories began to decline. Sultan [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd%C3%BClaziz Abdülaziz] (reigned 1861–1876) attempted to reestablish a strong Ottoman navy, building the largest fleet after those of Britain and France. The shipyard at Barrow, England, built its first [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine submarine] in 1886 for the Ottoman Empire.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-first_submarine_at_shipyard_162-0" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-first_submarine_at_shipyard-162 [157]]</sup></p>
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| <p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">However, the collapsing Ottoman economy could not sustain the fleet's strength for too long. Sultan [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd%C3%BClhamid_II Abdülhamid II] distrusted the admirals who sided with the reformist [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midhat_Pasha Midhat Pasha], and claimed that the large and expensive fleet was of no use against the Russians during the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877%E2%80%931878) Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)]. He locked most of the fleet inside the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Horn Golden Horn], where the ships decayed for the next 30 years. Following the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Turk_Revolution Young Turk Revolution] in 1908, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_of_Union_and_Progress Committee of Union and Progress] sought to develop a strong Ottoman naval force. The ''Ottoman Navy Foundation'' was established in 1910 to buy new ships through public donations.</p>
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| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BALKANHARBINDEHARLANTAYYAREMIZ-1912.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BALKANHARBINDEHARLANTAYYAREMIZ-1912.jpg][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Air_Force Ottoman pilots] during the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkan_Wars Balkan Wars] of 1912–1913.<p style="margin-top: 0.4em; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; line-height: 1.5em;">The history of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Air_Force Ottoman military aviation] dates back to 1909 between June 1909 and July 1911.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-163" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-163 [158]]</sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-164" style="line-height: 1em; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal; ">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire#cite_note-164 [159]]</sup> The Ottoman Empire started preparing its first pilots and planes, and with the founding of the Aviation School (''Tayyare Mektebi'') in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ye%C5%9Filk%C3%B6y Yeşilköy] on 3 July 1912, the Empire began to tutor its own flight officers. The founding of the Aviation School quickened advancement in the military aviation program, increased the number of enlisted persons within it, and gave the new pilots an active role in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Army Ottoman Army] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Navy Navy]. In May 1913 the world's first specialized Reconnaissance Training Program was started by the Aviation School and the first separate reconnaissance division was established<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap; ">[''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed citation needed]'']</sup>. In June 1914 a new military academy, the Naval Aviation School (''Bahriye Tayyare Mektebi'') was founded. With the outbreak of World War I, the modernization process stopped abruptly. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation_Squadrons_(Ottoman_Empire) Ottoman aviation squadrons] fought on many fronts during [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I World War I], from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galicia_(Central_Europe) Galicia] in the west to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus Caucasus] in the east and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemen Yemen] in the south.</p>
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| ===Formation=== | | ===Formation=== |
| By 1299, the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] had lost most of the Anatolian provinces, and as a result, Turkish Anatolia was divided into numerous [[Wikipedia:Anatolian beyliks|Ghazi emirates]]. One of these Ghazi emirates was led by Osman I, which the empire would be later be entitled by. | | By 1299, the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] had lost most of the Anatolian provinces, and as a result, Turkish Anatolia was divided into numerous [[Wikipedia:Anatolian beyliks|Ghazi emirates]]. One of these Ghazi emirates was led by Osman I, which the empire would be later be entitled by. |
